· The nature of ethical decisions and judgements

· The nature of ethical decisions and judgements

The ethical dimension of HRM

LEARNING OUTCOMES

On completing this chapter you should be able to define these key concepts. You should also understand:

· The meaning of ethics

· The nature of ethical decisions and judgements

· The ethical concepts of deontology, utilitarianism, stakeholder theory and discourse theory

· The significance of the concepts of equity, justice and fair dealing

· HRM ethical guidelines

· How to resolve ethical dilemmas

· The ethical role of HR

Introduction

The theme of this chapter is the importance of recognizing that there is an ethical dimension to human resource management. As Boxall et al (2007: 5) pointed out: ‘While HRM does need to support commercial outcomes (often called “the business case”), it also exists to serve organizational needs for social legitimacy.’ This means exercising social responsibility, ie being concerned for the interests (well-being) of employees and acting ethically with regard to the needs of people in the organization and the community.

To grasp this ethical dimension it is necessary to understand the nature and principles of ethics, the ethical role of HR and the ethical guidelines they can use. It is also necessary to know about approaches to resolving ethical dilemmas.

The meaning and concerns of ethics
Ethics is defined by the Compact Oxford Dictionary as being ‘related to morals, treating of moral questions’, and ethical is defined as ‘relating to morality’. Morality is defined as ‘having moral qualities or endowments’ and moral is defined as ‘of or pertaining to the distinction between right and wrong’. Petrick and Quinn (1997: 42) wrote that ethics ‘is the study of individual and collective moral awareness, judgement, character and conduct’. Hamlin et al (2001: 98) noted that ethics is concerned with rules or principles that help us to distinguish right and wrong.

Ethics and morality are sometimes treated as being synonymous, although Beauchamp and Bowie (1983: 1–2) suggested that they are different: ‘Whereas morality is a social institution with a history and code of learnable rules, ethical theory refers to the philosophical study of the nature of ethical principles, decisions and problems.’ Clearly, ethics is concerned with matters of right and wrong and therefore involves moral judgements. Even if ethics and morality are not the same, the two are closely linked. As Clegg et al (2007: 111) put it: ‘We understand ethics as the social organizing of morality.’ Simplistically, ethics could be described as being about behaviour while morality is about beliefs.

Ethics is concerned with making decisions and judgements about what is the right course of action to take. It can be described in terms of a framework that sets out different approaches and can be extended to embrace particular concepts that affect and guide ethical behaviour, namely equity, justice and fair dealing. These approaches and concepts are discussed below.

The nature of ethical decisions and judgements
As defined by Jones (1991: 367), an ethical decision is one that is morally acceptable to the larger community. He also noted that: ‘A moral issue is present where a person’s actions, when freely performed, may harm or benefit others. In other words, the action or decision must have consequences for others and must involve choice, or volition, on the part of the actor or decision maker’ (ibid: 367).

Winstanley and Woodall (2000a: 8–9) observed that:

Ethics is not about taking statements of morality at face value; it is a critical and challenging tool. There are no universally agreed ethical frameworks… Different situations require ethical insight and flexibility to enable us to encapsulate the grounds upon which competing claims can be made. Decisions are judgements usually involving choices between alternatives, but rarely is the choice between right and wrong… Moral disagreement and judgements are concerned with attitudes and feelings, not facts.

Clegg et al (2007: 112) emphasized that: ‘Ethical decisions emerge out of dilemmas that cannot be managed in advance through rules.’ People have to make choices. Foucault (1997: 284) asked: ‘What is ethics, if not the practice of freedom?’

Ethical frameworks
The ethical concepts of deontology, utilitarianism, stakeholder theory and discourse theory, as described below, provide frameworks that can be used to evaluate HRM policies and practices.

Deontological theory
Deontological (from the Greek for ‘what is right’) theory maintains that some actions are right or wrong irrespective of their consequences. It is associated with Kant’s notion of the categorical imperative, which contains two main propositions: a) that one should follow the principle that what is right for one person is right for everyone, and thus you must do to others as you would be done by; and b) in the words of Rawls (1973: 183): ‘We must treat persons solely as ends and not in any way as means.’

Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism is the belief that the highest principle of morality is to maximize happiness, the overall balance of pleasure against pain. Actions are justified when they result in the greatest good to the greatest number. As Sandel (2010: 33) explained, utilitarianism says that ‘the morality of an action depends solely on the consequences it brings about; the right thing to do will be whatever brings about the best state of affairs.’ In other words, actions should be judged in terms of their results. This can be interpreted as supporting the dubious principle that the end justifies the means – torture is all right as long as it prevents terrorism (NB even if this argument were accepted, the effectiveness of torture as a means of preventing terrorism is highly questionable). Utilitarianism has been criticized first because it fails to respect individual rights and second because, as Michael Sandel explained, it implies that all moral judgements can be translated into a single currency of value, but there is no such thing as a ‘util’.

Stakeholder theory
In accordance with the ideas of Freeman (1984), stakeholder theory states that the organization should be managed on behalf of its stakeholders: its owners, employees, customers, suppliers and local communities. As Legge (1998: 22) described it, management must act in the interests of the stakeholders as their agent, and also act in the interests of the organization to ensure the survival of the firm, safeguarding the long-term stakes of each group.

Discourse ethics
Foucault (1972) defined discourse as the taken-for-granted ways that people are collectively able to make sense of experience. Discourse ethics, as explained by Winstanley and Woodall (2000a: 14), suggests that ‘the role of ethicists is not to provide solutions to ethical problems, but rather to provide a practical process and procedure which is both rational and consensus enhancing, through which issues can be debated and discourse can take place’.

Equity theory
Equity theory, as formulated by Adams (1965), is concerned with the perceptions people have about how they are being treated as compared with others. To be dealt with equitably is to be treated fairly in comparison with another group of people (a reference group) or a relevant other person. Equity involves feelings and perceptions and it is always a comparative process. It is not synonymous with equality, which means treating everyone the same and would be inequitable if they deserve to be treated differently.

Justice
Justice is the process of treating people in a way that is inherently fair, right and proper. The concept of ‘justice as fairness’ proposed by Rawls (1973: 348) states that ‘natural duties and obligations arise only in virtue of ethical principles’. These principles were expressed by Rawls as follows:

First: every person is to have the equal right to the most extensive basic liberty comparable with a similar liberty for others.

Second: social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are both (a) reasonably expected to be to everyone’s advantage, and (b) attached to positions and offices open to all. (ibid: 60)

There are four types of justice: procedural justice, distributive justice, social justice and natural justice.

Procedural justice
Procedural justice (Adams, 1965; Leventhal, 1980) involves treating people in ways that are fair, consistent, transparent and properly consider their views and needs. In organizations, it is concerned with fair process and the perceptions employees have about the fairness with which company procedures in such areas as performance appraisal, promotion and discipline are being operated. The five factors that affect perceptions of procedural justice, as identified by Tyler and Bies (1990), are:

· Adequate consideration of an employee’s viewpoint.

· Suppression of personal bias towards an employee.

· Applying criteria consistently across employees.

· Providing early feedback to employees about the outcome of decisions.

· Providing employees with an adequate explanation of decisions made.

Distributive justice
Distributive justice (Adams, 1965; Leventhal, 1980) means ensuring that people are rewarded equitably in comparison with others in the organization and in accordance with their contribution, and that they receive what was promised to them (management ‘delivers the deal’).

Social justice
Social justice is based on the concepts of human rights and equality. Rawls (1973: 3–4) rejected the principle of utilitarianism when he asserted that in society: ‘Each person possesses an inviolability founded on justice that even the welfare of society as a whole cannot override. For this reason justice denies that the loss of freedom for some is made right by a greater good shared by others.’ In organizations, social justice means relating to employees generally in ways that recognize their natural rights to be treated justly, equitably and with respect.

Natural justice
According to the principles of natural justice employees should know the standards they are expected to achieve and the rules to which they are expected to conform. They should be given a clear indication of where they are failing or what rules have been broken and, except in cases of gross misconduct, they should be given a chance to improve before disciplinary action is taken.

HRM ethical guidelines
The guidelines set out below relate to how employees are treated in general and to the major HRM activities of organization development, recruitment and selection, learning and development, performance management, reward management and employee relations. They also relate to employment practices concerning the work environment, employee well-being, equal opportunities, managing diversity, handling disciplinary matters and grievances, job security and redundancy.

General guidelines
· Recognize that the strategic goals of the organization should embrace the rights and needs of employees as well as those of the business.

· Recognize that employees are entitled to be treated as full human beings with personal needs, hopes and anxieties.

· Do not treat employees simply as means to an end or mere factors of production.

· Relate to employees generally in ways that recognize their natural rights to be treated justly, equitably and with respect.

Organization development (OD)
· Agree in advance with clients and individuals the goals, content and risks of an OD programme.

· Make explicit any values or assumptions used in the programme.

· Obtain the maximum involvement of all concerned in the programme so that they understand the processes involved and how they can benefit from them.

· Work with clients to plan and implement change to the benefit of all stakeholders.

· Enable individuals to continue with their development on completing the programme.

· Protect confidentiality.

Recruitment and selection
· Treat candidates with consideration – applications should be acknowledged, candidates should be kept informed without undue delay of decisions made about their application, and they should not be kept waiting for the interview.

· Avoid intrusive or hectoring questioning in interviews.

· Do not put candidates under undue stress in interviews.

· Do not criticize any aspect of the candidate’s personality or experience.

· Use relevant selection criteria based on a proper analysis of job requirements.

· Give candidates reasonable opportunity to present their case and to ask questions.

· Avoid jumping to conclusions about candidates on inadequate evidence or as a result of prejudice.

· Give accurate and complete information to candidates about the job, prospects, security and terms and conditions of employment.

· Only use properly validated tests administered by trained testers.

· Do not use discriminating or biased tests.

· Monitor tests for impact and unintended bias.

· Ensure that candidates are not unfairly disadvantaged by testing processes.

· Give candidates feedback on test results unless there are compelling reasons why feedback should not be given.

· Ensure that selection decisions are free of discrimination or bias on the grounds of sex, sexual orientation, race, age or disability.

· Give unsuccessful candidates the reason for the decision if they request it.

Learning and development
· Respect individual rights for dignity, self-esteem, privacy and autonomy.

· Recognize that it is necessary and legitimate to provide individuals with learning opportunities that enable them to gain the knowledge and skills required to perform well in their jobs and develop their potential. But note that individuals should still be allowed autonomy to choose the extent to which they pursue learning and development programmes beyond this basic requirement.

· Accept that while the organization has the right to conduct learning and development activities that enhance performance, individuals also have the right to be provided with opportunities to develop their own knowledge, skills and employability.

· Ensure that people taking part in learning events feel ‘psychologically safe’ in accordance with the view expressed by Schein (1993: 91) that: ‘To make people feel safe in learning, they must have a motive, a sense of direction, and the opportunity to try out new things without the fear of punishment.’

· Avoid manipulating people to accept imposed organizational values.

Performance management
Performance management ethical principles have been defined by Winstanley and Stuart-Smith (1996) as follows:

· Respect for the individual – people should be treated as ‘ends in themselves’ and not merely as ‘means to other ends’.

· Mutual respect – the parties involved in performance management should respect each other’s needs and preoccupations.

· Procedural fairness – the procedures incorporated in performance management should be operated fairly in accordance with the principles of procedural justice.

· Transparency – people affected by decisions emerging from performance management processes should have the opportunity to scrutinize the basis upon which decisions were made.

Reward management
· Generally apply the principles of procedural and distributive justice.

· Ensure that reward policies and practices are fair, equitable and transparent and that they are applied consistently.

· Reward people according to their contribution.

· Ensure that people know in general the basis upon which rewards are provided and in particular how their own reward package is determined.

· Maintain reasonable and defensible pay differentials.

· Ensure that equal pay is provided for work of equal value.

· Base decisions about performance pay or bonuses on fair and equitable criteria.

· Avoid bonus schemes that encourage undesirable behaviour.

· Do not pay less than the living wage (in the UK in July 2013 it was £7.45 per hour outside London compared with £6.19 for the statutory minimum wage).

Employee relations
· Deliver the deal.

· Be open to employees’ input and responsive to justifiable questions and concerns about employment policies and practices.

· Provide genuine opportunities and channels for employees to express their views and influence decisions on matters that affect them.

· Negotiate in good faith.

· Recognize that the interests of management and employees do not necessarily coincide and develop and implement employee relations policies accordingly.

Employment practices
· Create a healthy, safe and fulfilling work environment.

· Promote the well-being of employees by improving the quality of working life provided for them, enhancing work–life balance and developing family-friendly policies.

· Take particular care to minimize the stress to which employees may be subjected.

· Provide equal opportunities for all with regard to recruitment and selection, learning and development, talent management, career progression and promotion.

· Manage diversity by recognizing the differences between people and ensuring that everyone feels valued and that the talents of all employees will be properly utilized.

· Handle disciplinary matters according to the principles of natural justice.

· Recognize that people may have legitimate grievances and respond to them promptly, fully and sympathetically.

· Preserve job security as far as possible and take alternative action to avoid compulsory redundancies.

· If compulsory redundancy is unavoidable, do whatever is possible to alleviate the distress by, for example, helping people to find work.

· Do not allow whistle-blowers who expose wrongdoing to be penalized.

Ethical dilemmas
‘Ethics will be enacted in situations of ambiguity where dilemmas and problems will be dealt with without the comfort of consensus or certitude’ (Clegg et al, 2007: 109). Bauman, quoted in Bauman and Tester (2001: 44), commented that: ‘Morality concerns choice first of all – it is the predicament human beings encounter when they must make a selection amongst various possibilities.’ And Derrida (1992) observed that ethical responsibility can exceed rational calculation.

Resolving ethical dilemmas
As Adam Smith (1759) wrote in The Theory of Modern Sentiments (quoted by Harrison, 2009: 246): ‘When ethically perplexed, the question we should always ask is: would a disinterested observer, in full possession of the relevant facts, approve or disapprove of our actions?’ This guidance is just as compelling and relevant today.

Woodall and Winstanley (2000: 285) suggested that ‘being ethical is not so much about finding one universal principle to govern all action, but more about knowing how to recognize and mediate between often unacknowledged differences of view’. By definition, an ethical dilemma is one that will be difficult to resolve. There may be all sorts of issues surrounding the situation, some of which will be unclear or contentious. The extent to which people react or behave rationally may be limited by their capacity to understand the complexities of the situation they are in and affected by their emotional reactions to it (the concept of bounded rationality). As Harrison (2009: 331) explained:

Some of the factors that militate against a purely ‘rational’ approach include confused, excessive, incomplete or unreliable data, incompetent processing or communicating of information, pressures of time, human emotions, and differences in individuals’ cognitive processes, mental maps and reasoning capacity.

Faced with factors such as these the process of ethical dilemma resolution can be hard going.

There is no ‘one right way’ to deal with an ethical issue, but an approach based on systematic questioning, analysis and diagnosis to get at the facts and establish the issues involved is more likely to produce a reasonably satisfactory outcome than one relying purely on ‘gut feeling’. The following checklist – used judiciously and selectively according to the circumstances – can provide a basis for such questioning and analysis.

Checklist – dealing with ethical issues

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· Approaches to developing a motivation strategy

· Approaches to developing a motivation strategy

Chapter 13: Motivation

LEARNING OUTCOMES

On completing this chapter you should be able to define these key concepts. You should also understand:

· The meaning of motivation

· Types of motivation

· The different motivation theories

· Motivation and job satisfaction

· Approaches to developing a motivation strategy

Introduction

Motivation is the force that energizes, directs and sustains behaviour. High performance is achieved by well-motivated people who are prepared to exercise discretionary effort, ie independently do more than is expected of them. Even in fairly basic roles, Hunter et al (1990) found through their research that the difference in value-added discretionary performance between ‘superior’ and ‘standard’ performers was 19 per cent. For highly complex jobs it was 48 per cent. The aims of this chapter are to explore the meaning of motivation, define the two main types of motivation – intrinsic and extrinsic, describe and critically evaluate the main theories of motivation, discuss two related aspects of motivation – its relationship to job satisfaction and money, and outline approaches to motivation strategy.

The meaning of motivation
The term ‘motivation’ derives from the Latin word for movement (movere). A motive is a reason for doing something. Motivation is the strength and direction of behaviour and the factors that influence people to behave in certain ways. People are motivated when they expect that a course of action is likely to lead to the attainment of a goal and a valued reward – one that satisfies their needs and wants. The term ‘motivation’ can refer variously to the goals that individuals have, the ways in which individuals chose their goals and the ways in which others try to change their behaviour. Locke and Latham (2004: 388) observed that: ‘The concept of motivation refers to internal factors that impel action and to external factors that can act as inducements to action.’

As described by Arnold et al (1991) the three components of motivation are:

  1. Direction – what a person is trying to do.
  2. Effort – how hard a person is trying.
  3. Persistence – how long a person keeps on trying.

Well-motivated people engage in positive discretionary behaviour – they decide to make an effort. Such people may be self-motivated, and as long as this means they are going in the right direction to attain what they are there to achieve, then this is the best form of motivation. But additional motivation provided by the work itself, the quality of leadership, and various forms of recognition and reward, builds on self-motivation and helps people to make the best use of their abilities and to perform well.

Types of motivation
Intrinsic motivation
Intrinsic motivation takes place when individuals feel that their work is important, interesting and challenging and that it provides them with a reasonable degree of autonomy (freedom to act), opportunities to achieve and advance, and scope to use and develop their skills and abilities. It can be described as motivation by the work itself. It is not created by external incentives. Deci and Ryan (1985) suggested that intrinsic motivation is based on the need to be competent and self-determining (that is, to have a choice). Michael Sandel (2012: 122) remarked that: ‘When people are engaged in an activity they consider intrinsically worthwhile, offering money may weaken their motivation by “crowding out” their intrinsic interest or commitment’.

Intrinsic motivation can be enhanced by job design. Katz (1964) suggested that jobs should in themselves provide sufficient variety, complexity, challenge and skill to engage the abilities of the worker. Hackman and Oldham (1974) in their job characteristics model identified the five core characteristics of jobs that result in intrinsic motivation, namely: skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy and feedback. Pink (2009) stated that there are three steps that managers can take to improve motivation:

  1. Autonomy – encourage people to set their own schedule and focus on getting work done not how it is done.
  2. Mastery – help people to identify the steps they can take to improve and ask them to identify how they will know they are making progress.
  3. Purpose – when giving instructions explain the why as well as the how.

Intrinsic motivation is associated with the concept of engagement, as explained in Chapter 15.

Extrinsic motivation
Extrinsic motivation occurs when things are done to or for people in order to motivate them. These include rewards such as incentives, increased pay, praise or promotion; and punishments such as disciplinary action, withholding pay, or criticism.

Extrinsic motivators can have an immediate and powerful effect, but it will not necessarily last long. The intrinsic motivators, which are concerned with the ‘quality of working life’ (a phrase and movement that emerged from this concept), are likely to have a deeper and longer-term effect because they are inherent in individuals and the work – and are not imposed from outside in such forms as incentive pay.

Motivation theory
As mentioned by Steers et al (2004: 379) the earliest approaches to understanding human motivation date from the time of the Greek philosophers and focus on the concept of hedonism as a principle driving force in behaviour. Individuals were seen as directing their efforts to seeking pleasure and avoiding pain. This principle was later refined and further developed in the works of philosophers such as John Locke and Jeremy Bentham in the 17th and 18th centuries. Motivation theory has moved on from then. It started in the earlier part of the 20th century with the contributions of the exponents of scientific management (instrumentality theory). In the middle years of that century the behavioural scientists entered the field and began to develop the ‘content’ or ‘needs’ theory of motivation. The main process theories such as expectancy theory emerged in the in the 1960s and 70s, although the first formulation of the process theory of reinforcement took place in 1911. The three main areas of motivation theory – instrumentality, content and process – are examined below.

Instrumentality theory
Instrumentality theory states in effect that rewards and punishments are the best instruments with which to shape behaviour. It assumes that people will be motivated to work if rewards and penalties are tied directly to their performance; thus the awards are contingent upon effective performance. Instrumentality theory has its roots in the scientific management methods of Taylor (1911: 121) who wrote: ‘It is impossible, through any long period of time, to get workmen to work much harder than the average men around them unless they are assured a large and a permanent increase in their pay.’

This theory provides a rationale for financial incentives such as performance-related pay, albeit a dubious one. Motivation using this approach has been and still is widely adopted. It may be successful in some circumstances, eg piece work, but – for reasons explained in Chapter 27– merit or performance pay is flawed.

Instrumentality theory relies exclusively on a system of external controls and does not recognize a number of other human needs. It also fails to appreciate the fact that the formal control system can be seriously affected by the informal relationship existing between workers.

Content theory
The aim of the content or needs theories produced by Maslow, Alderfer, McClelland, Herzberg, and Deci and Ryan was to identify the factors associated with motivation. The theory focuses on the content of motivation in the shape of needs. Its basis is the belief that an unsatisfied need creates tension and a state of disequilibrium. To restore the balance a goal is identified that will satisfy the need, and a behaviour pathway is selected that will lead to the achievement of the goal and the satisfaction of the need. Behaviour is therefore motivated by unsatisfied needs. A content theory model is shown in Figure 13.1. Content theory, as the term implies, indicates the components of motivation but it does not explain how motivation affects performance – a necessary requirement if the concept is to provide guidance on HR policy and practice. This was the role of expectancy theory, as will be discussed later.

Figure 13.1: The process of motivation according to content theory

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
The most famous classification of needs is the one formulated by Maslow (1954). He suggested that there are five major need categories that apply to people in general, starting from the fundamental physiological needs and leading through a hierarchy of safety, social and esteem needs to the need for self-fulfilment, the highest need of all. When a lower need is satisfied the next highest becomes dominant and the individual’s attention is turned to satisfying this higher need. The need for self-fulfilment, however, can never be satisfied. ‘Man is a wanting animal’; only an unsatisfied need can motivate behaviour and the dominant need is the prime motivator of behaviour. Psychological development takes place as people move up the hierarchy of needs, but this is not necessarily a straightforward progression. The lower needs still exist, even if temporarily dormant as motivators, and individuals constantly return to previously satisfied needs.

Maslow’s needs hierarchy has an intuitive appeal and has been very popular. But it has not been verified by empirical research such as that conducted by Wahba and Bridwell (1979), and it has been criticized for its apparent rigidity – different people may have different priorities and the underpinning assumption that everyone has the same needs is invalid. It is difficult to accept that needs progress steadily up the hierarchy and Maslow himself expressed doubts about the validity of a strictly ordered hierarchy. But he did emphasize that the higher-order needs are more significant.

ERG theory (Alderfer)
Alderfer (1972) produced a more convincing and simpler theory, which postulated three primary categories of needs:

  1. Existence needs such as hunger and thirst – pay, fringe benefits and working conditions are other types of existence needs.
  2. Relatedness needs, which acknowledge that people are not self-contained units but must engage in transactions with their human environment – acceptance, understanding, confirmation and influence are elements of the relatedness process.
  3. Growth needs, which involve people in finding the opportunities to be what they are most fully and to become what they can. This is the most significant need.

McClelland’s achievement motivation
An alternative way of classifying needs was developed by McClelland (1961), who based it mainly on studies of managers. He identified three needs of which the need for achievement was the most important:

  1. The need for achievement, defined as the need for competitive success measured against a personal standard of excellence.
  2. The need for affiliation, defined as the need for warm, friendly, compassionate relationships with others.
  3. The need for power , defined as the need to control or influence others.

Herzberg’s two-factor model
The two-factor model of motivation developed by Herzberg (1957, 1966) was based on an investigation into the sources of job satisfaction and dissatisfaction of accountants and engineers who were asked what made them feel exceptionally good or exceptionally bad about their jobs. According to Herzberg, this research established that there were two factors that affected feelings of satisfaction or dissatisfaction. Motivating factors or ‘satisfiers’ relate to the job content and consist of the need for achievement, the interest of the work, responsibility and opportunities for advancement. These needs are the intrinsic motivators. He summed this up in the phrase ‘motivation by the work itself’.

Hygiene factors relate to the job context, including such things as pay and working conditions. ‘Hygiene’ is used in the medical use of the term, meaning preventative and environmental. In themselves hygiene factors neither satisfy nor motivate and they serve primarily to prevent job dissatisfaction, while having little effect on positive job attitudes. Pay is not a satisfier but if it is inadequate or inequitable it can cause dissatisfaction. However, its provision does not provide lasting satisfaction.

Herzberg’s two-factor theory in effect identifies needs but it has been attacked by, for example, Opsahl and Dunnette (1966). The research method has been criticized because no attempt was made to measure the relationship between satisfaction and performance. It has been claimed that the two-factor nature of the theory is an inevitable result of the questioning method used by the interviewers. It has also been suggested that wide and unwarranted inferences have been drawn from small and specialized samples and that there is no evidence to suggest that the satisfiers do improve productivity. The underpinning assumption that everyone has the same needs is invalid. Denise Rousseau (2006: 263) in her presidential address to the US Academy of Management summed up these views as follows: ‘Herzberg’s long discredited two-factor theory is typically included in the motivation section of management textbooks, despite the fact that it was discredited as an artefact of method bias over thirty years ago.’

In spite of these objections, the Herzberg two-factor theory continues to thrive; partly because it is easy to understand and seems to be based on real-life rather than academic abstractions, and partly because it convincingly emphasizes the positive value of the intrinsic motivating factors and highlights the need to consider both financial and non-financial factors when developing reward systems. It is also in accord with a fundamental belief in the dignity of labour and the Protestant ethic – that work is good in itself. Herzberg’s strength as a proselytizer rather than a researcher meant that he had considerable influence on the job enrichment movement, which sought to design jobs in a way that would maximize the opportunities to obtain intrinsic satisfaction from work and thus improve the quality of working life. Herzberg famously remarked that if you want people to do a good job then give them a good job to do (quoted by Dowling, 1971).

Self-determination theory
As formulated by Deci and Ryan (2000) this theory states that individuals are motivated by the need to achieve three fundamental goals: striving for competence, autonomy and relatedness.

Comment on content theories
Shields (2007: 74) observed that content theories share some common shortcomings. His criticisms were that they incorrectly assume:

· the existence of a universally applicable set of human needs;

· that according to Maslow (1954), needs conform to a simple ordered hierarchy of need importance, when in reality, needs seem to operate in a more flexible, less ordered and predictable way;

· that the link between needs and behaviours is direct and automatic, rather than mediated by human consciousness, values and choice.

In addition, he pointed out that content theories ‘underestimate the motivational potency of extrinsic rewards, including financial rewards’.

Process theory
In process theory, the emphasis is on the psychological or mental processes and forces that affect motivation, as well as on basic needs. It is also known as cognitive theory because it refers to people’s perceptions of their working environment and the ways in which they interpret and understand it. The main process theories are concerned with reinforcement, expectancy, goals, equity, and cognitive evaluation.

Reinforcement theory
This is the oldest and least complex of the process theories. It is based on ‘the law of effect’ as formulated by Thorndike (1911), which states that over time people learn about the relationships between their actions and the consequences of them and this understanding guides their future behaviour. In other words, if they believe that something has worked previously then they will do it again. It was later developed by Hull (1943, 1951).

Skinner (1953) and others later built on these principles with the notion of ‘operant conditioning’, which was influenced by the work of Pavlov and his salivating dogs. As Shields (2007: 76) put it: ‘Positive reinforcement of desired behaviour elicits more of the same; punishment of undesired behaviour (negative reinforcement) elicits less of the same.’ Reinforcement models continue to thrive today as explanatory vehicles for understanding work motivation and job performance, and as a justification of performance pay.

But reinforcement theory can be criticized for taking an unduly mechanistic view of human nature. It implies that people can be motivated by treating them as machines – by pulling levers. In assuming that the present choices of individuals are based on an understanding of the outcomes of their past choices, reinforcement theory ignores the existing context in which choices are made. In addition, motivational theories based on the principle of reinforcement pay insufficient attention to the influence of expectations – no indication is given of how to distinguish in advance which outcomes would strengthen responses and which would weaken them. Above all, they are limited because they imply, in Allport’s (1954) vivid phrase, a hedonism of the past.

Expectancy theory
Expectancy theory states that motivation will be high when people know what they have to do in order to get a reward, expect that they will be able to get the reward and expect that the reward will be worthwhile.

The concept of expectancy was originally contained in the valency-instrumentality-expectancy (VIE) theory that was formulated by Vroom (1964). Valency stands for value; instrumentality is the belief that if we do one thing it will lead to another; and expectancy is the probability that action or effort will lead to an outcome.

The strength of expectations may be based on past experiences (reinforcement), but individuals are frequently presented with new situations – a change in job, payment system, or working conditions imposed by management – where past experience is an inadequate guide to the implications of the change. In these circumstances, motivation may be reduced.

Motivation is only likely when a clearly perceived and usable relationship exists between performance and outcome, and the outcome is seen as a means of satisfying needs. This explains why extrinsic financial motivation – for example, an incentive or bonus scheme – works only if the link (line of sight) between effort and reward is clear and the value of the reward is worth the effort. It also explains why intrinsic motivation arising from the work itself can be more powerful than extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation outcomes are more under the control of individuals, who can place greater reliance on their past experiences to indicate the extent to which positive and advantageous results are likely to be obtained by their behaviour.

This theory was developed by Porter and Lawler (1968) into a model shown in Figure 13.2, which follows Vroom’s ideas by suggesting that there are two factors determining the effort that people put into their jobs: first, the value of the rewards to individuals in so far as they satisfy their needs for security, social esteem, autonomy and self-actualization; second, the probability that rewards depend on effort, as perceived by individuals – in other words, their expectations about the relationships between effort and reward. Thus, the greater the value of a set of awards and the higher the probability that receiving each of these rewards depends upon effort, the greater the effort that will be put forth in a given situation.

Figure 13.2: Motivation model (Porter and Lawler, 1968)

But, as Porter and Lawler emphasized, mere effort is not enough. It has to be effective effort if it is to produce the desired performance. The two variables additional to effort that affect task achievement are: 1) ability – individual characteristics such as intelligence, knowledge, skills; 2) role perceptions – what the individual wants to do or thinks they are required to do. These are good from the viewpoint of the organization if they correspond with what it thinks the individual ought to be doing. They are poor if the views of the individual and the organization do not coincide.

Alongside goal theory (see below), expectancy theory has become the most influential motivation theory, particularly as it affects performance and reward management. But reservations have been expressed about it. House et al (1974) remarked that: ‘Evidence for the validity of the theory is very mixed.’ They also established that there were a number of variables affecting expectations that make it difficult to predict how they function. These are:

· Leadership behaviour – the function of the leader in clarifying expectations, guiding, supporting and rewarding subordinates.

· Individual characteristics – the subjects’ perception of their ability to perform the required task.

· Nature of the task – whether accomplishing the task provides the necessary reinforcements and rewards.

· The practices of the organization – its reward and control systems and how it functions.

Research conducted by Behling and Starke (1973) established that individuals:

· make crucial personal decisions without clearly understanding the consequences;

· do not in practice consistently evaluate their order of preference for alternative actions;

· have to assign two values when making a decision – its desirability and its achievability – but they tend to be influenced mainly by desirability – they let their tastes influence their beliefs;

· may be able to evaluate the extrinsic rewards they expect but may find it difficult to evaluate the possibility of achieving intrinsic rewards;

· may find it difficult to distinguish the benefits of one possible outcome from another.

They concluded that: ‘Expectancy theory can account for some of the variations in work effort but far less than normally attributed to it’ (ibid 386).

Shields (2007: 80) commented that a problem with expectancy theory is that it assumes that ‘behaviour is rational and premeditated when we know that much workplace behaviour is impulsive and emotional’.

However, in spite of these objections, the simple message of expectancy theory – that people will be motivated if they expect that their behaviour will produce a worthwhile reward – is compelling. And it provides a useful tool to assess the effectiveness of motivating devices such as performance-related pay.

Goal theory
Goal theory as developed by Latham and Locke (1979) following their research states that motivation and performance are higher when individuals are set specific goals, when goals are demanding but accepted, and when there is feedback on performance. Goals must be clearly defined. Participation in goal setting is important as a means of getting agreement to the setting of demanding goals. Feedback is vital in maintaining motivation, particularly towards the achievement of even higher goals.

However, the universality of goal theory has been questioned. For example, Pintrich (2000) noted that people have different goals in different circumstances and that it is hard to justify the assumption that goals are always accessible and conscious. And Harackiewicz et al (2002) warned that goals are only effective when they are consistent with and match the general context in which they are pursued. But support for goal theory was provided by Bandura and Cervone (1983) who emphasized the importance of self-efficacy (a belief in one’s ability to accomplish goals).

Equity theory
Equity theory, as defined by Adams (1965), is concerned with the perceptions people have about how they are being treated as compared with others. He proposed that employees assess the fairness or otherwise of their rewards (outcomes) in relation to their effort or qualifications (inputs) and that they do this by comparing their own input/output ratio against that of other individuals. If the input/output ratio is perceived to be unfavourable, they will feel that there is reward inequity.

Equity theory explains only one aspect of the processes of motivation and job satisfaction, although it may be significant in terms of morale and, possibly, of performance.

Social learning theory
Social learning theory as developed by Bandura (1977) combines aspects of both reinforcement and expectancy theory. It recognizes the significance of the basic behavioural concept of reinforcement as a determinant of future behaviour but also emphasizes the importance of internal psychological factors, especially expectancies about the value of goals and the individual’s ability to reach them. The term ‘reciprocal determinism’ is used to denote the concept that while the situation will affect individual behaviour individuals will simultaneously influence the situation.

Cognitive evaluation theory
Cognitive evaluation theory contends that the use of extrinsic rewards may destroy the intrinsic motivation that flows from inherent job interest. It was formulated by Deci and Ryan (1985). Referring to their research, they stated that: ‘Rewards, like feedback, when used to convey to people a sense of appreciation for work well done, will tend to be experienced informationally and will maintain or enhance intrinsic motivation. But when they are used to motivate people, they will be experienced controllingly and will undermine intrinsic motivation.’

Deci et al (1999) followed up this research by carrying out a meta-analysis of 128 experiments on rewards and intrinsic motivation to establish the extent to which intrinsic motivation was undermined by rewards. The results of the study indicated that for high-interest tasks, rewards had significant negative effects on what the researchers called ‘free-choice measures’, which included the time spent on the task after the reward was removed.

But as noted by Gerhart and Rynes (2003: 52): ‘The vast majority of research on this theory has been performed in school rather than work settings, often with elementary school-aged children.’ But that did not stop other commentators assuming that the results were equally significant for working adults. It is interesting to note that research in industry conducted by Deci and Ryan (1985), while it found that financial incentives did decrease intrinsic motivation in high-control organizational cultures, also established that in organizations with the opposite high-involvement culture, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation were both increased by monetary incentives. Context is all important. Moreover, a meta-analysis of 145 studies conducted by Cameron et al (2001) led to the conclusion that rewards do not inevitably have negative effects on intrinsic motivation.

Purposeful work behaviour
A more recent integrated motivation theory formulated by Barrick and Mount (2013) focused on the impact on motivation of individual factors, such as personality and ability, and situational factors, such as job characteristics. The motivation to engage in purposeful work behaviour depends on both these factors.

Comment on process theories
Process theories are not based on suspect assumptions about the universality of needs, as are content theories. Process theories emphasize the importance of individual decision-making on work behaviour. As pointed out by Shields (2007: 85) They ‘acknowledge the importance of social and job context as co-determinants of motivational strength while those other than reinforcement theory also highlight the importance of self-efficacy, task or goal clarity and motivational learning’.

Summary of motivation theories
A summary of motivation theories is set out in Table 13.1.

Table 13.1: Summary of motivation theories

Category

Theory

Summary of theory

Implications

Instrumentality

Taylorism

Taylor (1911)

If we do one thing it leads to another. People will be motivated to work if rewards and punishments are directly related to their performance.

Basis of crude attempts to motivate people by incentives. Often used as the implied rationale for performance-related pay although this is seldom an effective motivator.

Content or needs

Hierarchy of needs

Maslow (1954)

A hierarchy of needs exists: physiological, safety, social, esteem, self-fulfilment. Needs at a higher level only emerge when a lower need is satisfied.

Focuses attention on the various needs that motivate people and the notion that a satisfied need is no longer a motivator. The concept of a hierarchy has no practical significance.

ERG

Alderfer (1972)

A non-hierarchical theory identifying three basic needs: existence, relatedness and growth.

A simpler and more convincing categorization of needs.

Achievement motivation

McClelland (1961)

Identified three needs for managers: achievement, affiliation and power. Of these, achievement is the most important.

Emphasized the importance to managers of achievement as a motivating factor.

Two-factor model

Herzberg (1957, 1966)

Two groups of factors affect job satisfaction: 1) those intrinsic to the work itself; 2) those extrinsic to the job such as pay and working conditions. The factors that affect positive feelings (the motivating factors) are quite different from those that affect negative feelings (the hygiene factors).

The research methodology has been strongly criticized (it does not support the existence of two factors) and the underpinning assumption that everyone has the same needs is invalid. But it has influenced approaches to job design (job enrichment) and it supports the proposition that reward systems should provide for both financial and non-financial rewards.

Self-determination

Deci and Ryan (2000)

Individuals are motivated to achieve three fundamental goals: striving for competence, autonomy, and relatedness.

Provides an alternative and simpler classification of needs.

Process

Reinforcement

Thorndike (1911)

Skinner (1953)

As experience is gained in satisfying needs, people perceive that certain actions help to achieve goals while others are unsuccessful. The successful actions are repeated when a similar need arises.

Provide feedback that positively reinforces effective behaviour.

Expectancy

Vroom (1964)

Porter and Lawler (1968)

Effort (motivation) depends on the likelihood that rewards will follow effort and that the reward is worthwhile.

The key theory informing approaches to rewards, ie that they must be a link between effort and reward (line of sight), the reward should be achievable and it should be worthwhile.

Goal

Lathom and Locke (1979)

Motivation will improve if people have demanding but agreed goals and receive feedback

Influences performance management and learning and development practices.

Equity

Adams (1966)

People are better motivated if treated equitably, ie treated fairly in comparison with another group of people (a reference group) or a relevant other person.

Need to have equitable reward and employment practices.

Social learning

Bandura (1977)

Recognizes the significance of reinforcement as a determinant of future behaviour but also emphasizes the importance of expectancies about the value of goals and the individual’s ability to reach them.

The emphasis is on expectancies, individual goals and values and the influence of both person and situational factors as well as reinforcement.

Cognitive evaluation

Deci and Ryan (1985)

The use of extrinsic rewards may destroy the intrinsic motivation that flows from inherent job interest.

Emphasizes the importance of non-financial rewards. The conclusions reached from Deci and Ryan’s research have been questioned.

Conclusions on motivation theory
All the theories referred to above make some contribution to an understanding of the processes that affect motivation. But instrumentality theory provides only a simplistic explanation of how motivation works. Needs and content theories are more sophisticated but have their limitations. As Gerhart and Rynes (2003: 53) commented:

Although the ideas developed by Maslow, Herzberg and Deci have had considerable appeal to many people, the prevailing view in the academic literature is that the specific predictions of these theories is not supported by empirical evidence. On the other hand it would be a mistake to underestimate the influence that these theories have had on research and practice. Pfeffer, Kohn and others continue to base their argument regarding the ineffectiveness of money as a motivator on such theories.

But, bearing in mind the reservations set out earlier, needs theory still offers an indication of the factors that motivate people and content theory provides useful explanations of how motivation takes place. And while instrumentality and reinforcement theories may be simplistic they still explain some aspects of how rewards affect motivation and performance and they continue to exert influence on the beliefs of some people about the power of incentives to motivate people. Herzberg’s research may be flawed but he still contributed to the recognition of the importance of job design.

Motivation theory can explain what makes people tick at work but it is also necessary to consider two other aspects of the impact of motivation – its relationship with job satisfaction and the effect of money on motivation. Strategies for motivation based on the lessons learnt from motivation theory are considered at the end of this chapter.

Motivation and job satisfaction
Job satisfaction can be defined as the attitudes and feelings people have about their work. Positive and favourable attitudes towards the job indicate job satisfaction. Negative and unfavourable attitudes towards the job indicate job dissatisfaction. It can be distinguished from morale, which is a group rather than individual variable, related to the degree to which group members feel attracted to their group and want to remain a member of it.

The factors that affect job satisfaction
Levels of job satisfaction or dissatisfaction are influenced by:

· The intrinsic motivating factors. These relate to job content, especially the five dimensions of jobs identified by Hackman and Oldham (1974): skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy and feedback (the job characteristics model).

· The quality of supervision. The Hawthorne studies (Roethlisberger and Dixon, 1939) resulted in the claim that supervision is the most important determinant of worker attitudes. Elton Mayo (1933) believed that a man’s desire to be continuously associated in work with his fellows is a strong, if not the strongest human characteristic.

· Success or failure. Success obviously creates satisfaction, especially if it enables individuals to prove to themselves that they are using their abilities to the full. And it is equally obvious that the reverse is true of failure.

Job satisfaction and performance
It is a commonly held and not unreasonable belief that an increase in job satisfaction results in improved performance. The whole human relations movement led by Mayo (1933) and supported by the Roethlisberger and Dixon (1939) research was based on the belief that productivity could be increased by making workers more satisfied, primarily through pleasant and supportive supervision and by meeting their social needs. But research by Katz et al (1950) and Katz et al (1951) found that the levels of satisfaction with pay, job status or fellow workers in high productivity units were no different to those in low productivity units.

Meta-analysis by Brayfield and Crocket (1955) of a number of studies concluded that there was little evidence of any simple or appreciable relationship between satisfaction and performance. A later review of research by Vroom (1964) found that the median correlation between job satisfaction and job performance for all these studies was only 0.14, which is not high enough to suggest any marked relationship between them. Spector (1997) came to the same conclusion. Indeed, it can be argued that it is not increases in satisfaction that produce improved performance but improved performance that increases satisfaction. This was confirmed by data on the link between job satisfaction and performance for 177 store managers, analysed by Christen et al (2006). It was established that store managers’ performance increased their job satisfaction but that job satisfaction had no impact on job performance.

Motivation and money
Money, in the form of pay or some other sort of remuneration, is regarded by many people as the most obvious extrinsic reward. Money seems to provide the carrot that most people want.

Doubts were cast on the effectiveness of money by Herzberg (1968), which although unsupported by his research have some degree of face validity. He claimed that while the lack of money can cause dissatisfaction, its provision does not result in lasting satisfaction. There is something in this, especially for people on fixed salaries or rates of pay who do not benefit directly from an incentive scheme. They may feel good when they get an increase; apart from the extra money, it is a highly tangible form of recognition and an effective means of helping people to feel that they are valued. But this feeling of euphoria can rapidly die away. Other causes of dissatisfaction from Herzberg’s list of hygiene factors, such as working conditions or the quality of management, can loom larger in some people’s minds when they fail to get the satisfaction they need from the work itself. However, it must be re-emphasized that different people have different needs and wants. Some will be much more motivated by money than others. What cannot be assumed is that money motivates everyone in the same way and to the same extent. Thus it is naive to think that the introduction of a performance-related pay scheme will miraculously transform everyone overnight into well-motivated, high-performing individuals.

Nevertheless, money is a powerful force because it is linked directly or indirectly to the satisfaction of many needs. Money may in itself have no intrinsic meaning, but it acquires significant motivating power because it comes to symbolize so many intangible goals. It acts as a symbol in different ways for different people, and for the same person at different times.

But do financial incentives motivate people? The answer is yes, for those people who are strongly motivated by money and whose expectations are that they will receive a worthwhile financial reward. But less confident employees may not respond to incentives that they do not expect to achieve. It can also be argued that extrinsic rewards may erode intrinsic interest – people who work just for money could find their tasks less pleasurable and may not, therefore, do them so well. What we do know is that a multiplicity of factors is involved in performance improvements and many of those factors are interdependent.

Money can therefore provide positive motivation in the right circumstances not only because people need and want money but also because it serves as a highly tangible means of recognition. But badly designed and managed pay systems can demotivate. Another researcher in this area was Jaques (1961), who emphasized the need for such systems to be perceived as being fair and equitable. In other words, the reward should be clearly related to effort or level of responsibility and people should not receive less money than they deserve compared with their fellow workers. Jaques called this the ‘felt-fair’ principle.

Motivation strategies
Motivation strategies aim to create a working environment and to develop policies and practices that will provide for higher levels of performance from employees. The factors affecting them and the HR contribution are summarized in Table 13.2.

Table 13.2: Factors affecting motivation strategies and the HR contribution

Factors affecting motivation strategies

The HR contribution

The complexity of the process of motivation means that simplistic approaches based on instrumentality or needs theory are unlikely to be successful.

Avoid the trap of developing or supporting strategies that offer prescriptions for motivation based on a simplistic view of the process or fail to recognize individual differences.

People are more likely to be motivated if they work in an environment in which they are valued for what they are and what they do. This means paying attention to the basic need for recognition.

Encourage the development of performance management processes that provide opportunities to agree expectations and to recognize accomplishments.

Extrinsic motivators such as incentive pay can have an immediate and

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Performance Management and Appraisal System

Performance Management and Appraisal System

HRMT600 | LESSON EIGHT: REVIEW FOR FINAL EXAM

Introduction

Topics to be covered:

· Overview of highlights and key words from previous lessons

This course has provided an overview of the history of human resource management (HRM) and discussions of key issues in HRM such as the importance of orientation programs, how to handle processes such as job analysis and performance management, and the role of HRM professionals in labor relations with unions. This lesson will help you prepare for your final exam by providing a review of highlights from the previous lessons in this course, including the key terms presented in each lesson.

Lesson 1: Fundamentals of HRM and Strategic Implications

In the 1800s, HRM was not a recognized function or profession, and organizations did not follow any established norms that could be regarded as best practices for HRM. Rather, organizations strove to manage labor in a way that treated workers fairly while encouraging them to be as productive as possible to support the organization in its efforts to maximize profits. Over the years, HRM evolved and developed as a function in organizations that handles staffing, retention, development, adjustment, and change management. Today, organizations must have a well-planned and managed HRM function if they wish to succeed. HRM professionals are a vital part of an organization’s management, helping organizations handle various activities, including the challenges of competing globally.

Key Terms from Lesson 1

ADJUSTMENT

CHANGE MANAGEMENT

DEVELOPMENT

EMPLOYMENT MANAGEMENT

GLOBALIZATION

HRM SYSTEM

HUMAN RELATIONS

HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

HUMAN RESOURCES

INDUSTRIAL DEMOCRACY

INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY

INDUSTRIAL WELFARE WORK

LABOR PROBLEM

LABOR PROCESS

LABOR POWER

LABOR TIME

PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT

RETENTION

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT

STAFFING

TECHNICAL SYSTEM

VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE

Lesson 2: The Legal and Ethical Context of HRM

The practice of HRM is subject to various laws and regulations that HRM managers must follow as they deal with personnel issues, including the recruitment, hiring, and firing of employees. In addition to abiding by legal requirements, HRM managers also have an obligation to practice good ethics as they handle an organization’s personnel issues. This includes respecting employees’ rights and ensuring that disciplinary actions comply with legal requirements, as well as ethical considerations, including justice.

Key Terms from Lesson 2

ADVERSE IMPACT

AFFIRMATIVE ACTION

AGE DISCRIMINATION IN EMPLOYMENT ACT

CONTRACTUAL EMPLOYMENT

DISCRIMINATION

DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE

EMPLOYEE VOICE

EMPLOYMENT-AT-WILL

EQUAL PAY ACT

ETHICAL DILEMMAS

FAIR LABOR STANDARDS ACT (FLSA)

FAMILY AND MEDICAL LEAVE ACT (FMLA)

HARASSMENT

INFORMATIONAL JUSTICE

INTERACTIONAL JUSTICE

JUSTICE

ORGANIZATIONAL CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIORS

PREGNANCY DISCRIMINATION ACT

PROCEDURAL JUSTICE

REVERSE DISCRIMINATION

SEXUAL HARASSMENT

STRUCTURAL JUSTICE

TERMINATION

TITLE I AND TITLE V OF THE AMERICANS WITH DISABILITIES ACT OF 1990 (ADA)

TITLE II OF THE GENETIC INFORMATION NONDISCRIMINATION ACT OF 2008 (GINA)

TITLE VII OF THE CIVIL RIGHTS ACT

UNEQUAL TREATMENT

WORKERS’ COMPENSATION LAWS

Lesson 3: Staffing the Organization

One of the primary responsibilities of HRM is to attract and recruit qualified workers to fill positions within an organization, ensuring the organization is adequately staffed. This begins with conducting a job analysis, job descriptions, and job specifications for each position within an organization. The strategies that HRM professionals use for recruitment and selection may vary depending upon factors such as the type of position to be filled, the organization’s environment, the nature of competition from other organizations, and the physical location of the organization.

Key Terms from Lesson 3

ABILITIES REQUIRED

BEHAVIOR

CREDENTIALS/EXPERIENCE

CRITICAL INCIDENTS

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

ESSENTIAL FUNCTIONS

INFORMATION INPUT

INTERVIEW

JOB ANALYSIS

JOB CONTEXT

JOB DESCRIPTION

JOB PERFORMANCE

JOB SPECIFICATION

KNOWLEDGE REQUIRED

LABOR MARGIN

MENTAL PROCESSES

OBSERVATION

OTHER JOB CHARACTERISTICS

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

RELATIONSHIPS

SKILLS REQUIRED

STAFFING

STRUCTURED QUESTIONNAIRES

TASKS

WORK OUTPUT

Lesson 4: Employee Training and Development

Once an employee is hired, he or she will need orientation followed by other socialization processes, as well as training and development. Training can be a costly investment but it also yields benefits that generally make the costs worthwhile. HRM professionals should know the six Es of training, which are the reasons organizations should provide training to employees: engage, educate, enhance, empower, energize and enlighten.

Key Terms from Lesson 4

CODE OF CONDUCT

CODE OF ETHICS

DEVELOPMENT

GOALS

MENTORSHIP

MISSION

OBJECTIVES

ONBOARDING

ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE

ORIENTATION

PERFORMANCE AND SOCIAL FEEDBACK

RELATIONSHIP BUILDING

SOCIAL CAPITAL

SOCIAL FACILITATION

SOCIAL-ORIENTED INFORMATION SEEKING

SOCIALIZATION

SYNERGY

TASK-ORIENTED INFORMATION SEEKING

TRAINING

VISION

Lesson 5: Performance Management and Appraisal System

To establish standards for behavior and hold employees accountable to those standards, organizations usually have a system of performance management. An important part of this system is a process that evaluates and appraises employee behavior and performance, which can be used to encourage employees to meet organization’s expectations for employee behavior and performance. When involved in a performance management system, HRM professionals must be able to define, facilitate, and encourage performance. They also must use appropriate methods to evaluate employee performance. Some of their options include management by objectives, critical incident diary, behaviorally anchored rating scale, graphic rating scale, ranking, paired comparison, forced distribution, and 360-degree evaluation. Regardless of how they approach the evaluation process, they must ensure it is reliable and valid, and they must make every effort to avoid the common errors made on performance appraisals.

Key Terms from Lesson 5

ABILITIES

ABSOLUTE METHODS

ATTITUDE

ATTRIBUTION

BENCHMARK

CENTRAL TENDENCY ERROR

COMMUNICATION

COMPARATIVE METHODS

CONSISTENCY

CONTRIBUTION

DEVELOPMENT DECISIONS

DISCRETIONARY EFFORT

EFFECTIVENESS

EFFORT

EFFORT BARGAIN

EVALUATIVE DECISIONS

HALO ERROR

INTELLECTUAL ABILITIES

LENIENCY ERROR

LOW-DIFFERENTIATION ERROR

PERCEPTION

PERFORMANCE

PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL

PERFORMANCE DEFINITION

PERFORMANCE ENCOURAGEMENT

PERFORMANCE FACILITATION

PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT

PERSONAL BIAS ERROR

PHYSICAL ABILITIES

PRODUCTIVITY

RACE AND CULTURE

RECENCY ERROR

RELEVANCE

RELIABLE

SELF-AWARENESS ABILITIES

STRICTNESS ERROR

TOTAL PERSON CONCEPT

VALID

VOICE

Lesson 6: Compensation and Benefits

To be successful at work, employees must be motivated and engaged. Compensation and fringe benefits can help motivate employees. Organizations have a variety of options when deciding the types of pay systems they will implement and the fringe benefits they will offer. To make these decisions, they should understand what motivates their employees and provide the types of compensation and fringe benefits that have value to employees. As part of this process, organizations must be aware of whether individual employees are exempt or non-exempt.

Key Terms from Lesson 6

BONUS PLANS

COMMISSION

COMPENSATION

COMPETENCY-BASED PAY SYSTEM

EMPLOYEE SERVICES

ENGAGEMENT

EXTERNAL EQUITY

FRINGE BENEFITS

GAIN-SHARING

HOURLY WAGES OR DAYWORK

HYGIENE FACTORS

INDIVIDUAL EQUITY

INTERNAL EQUITY

MARKET-BASED PAY SYSTEM

MOTIVATION

MOTIVATOR FACTORS

NEEDS-BASED THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

PAY COMPRESSION

PAY-FOR-PERFORMANCE SYSTEM

PAYMENTS FOR TIME NOT WORKED

PIECEWORK

PROCESS-BASED THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

PROFIT-SHARING

SALARY

SECURITY AND HEALTH

STOCK OPTIONS

UNEMPLOYMENT BENEFITS

WORKERS COMPENSATION

Lesson 7: Organized Labor

Many organizations employ individuals who are members of labor unions. When HRM professionals work in such organizations, they must understand labor unions and how this affects labor relations. In addition, they must understand the collective bargaining process and the role they are expected to perform as part of this process. They also must understand legislation affecting labor relations, including right to work laws and how these affect employment processes in states that have such laws.

Key Terms from Lesson 7

AGENCY SHOP

ARBITRATION

BARGAINING ZONE

BOYCOTT

CLOSED-SHOP AGREEMENTS

COLLECTIVE BARGAINING

CRAFT UNIONS

DISTRIBUTIVE BARGAINING

FEATHERBEDDING

FREE RIDERS

GRIEVANCE

INDUSTRIAL UNIONS

INTEGRATIVE BARGAINING

LABOR CONTRACT

MEDIATION

OPEN-SHOP AGREEMENT

PICKETING

PIECEWORK

RIGHT-TO-WORK LAWS

SHIFT DIFFERENTIAL

STRIKE

UNION SECURITY CLAUSE

UNION SHOP

UNIONS

YELLOW-DOG CONTRACT

Conclusion

HRM professionals have a myriad of responsibilities, and they must be knowledgeable in a variety of topics and issues to do their jobs well. This includes being knowledgeable about legal requirements, as well as other issues such as how to motivate employees and how to handle processes such as collective bargaining. HRM is a challenging profession. It also is a critical function that is an absolute necessity if an organization is to be successful.

Course Overview

This course has introduced you to some of the basic, but also most critical, aspects of HRM. By being knowledgeable about these areas, understanding their importance and how to handle them, you can be a successful HRM professional.

References

Banfield, P., & Kay, R. (2008). Introduction to human resource management. New York: Oxford University Press.

Cascio, W. F. (2010). Managing human resources: Productivity, quality of work life, profits, (8th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin.

Nickels, W. G., McHugh, J M., & McHugh, S. M. (2013). Understanding business, (10th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Irwin.

Schermerhorn, J. R. Jr., Hunt, J. G., & Osborn, R. N. . (2005). Organizational behavior, (9th ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

York, K. M. (2010). Applied human resource management: Strategic issues and experiential exercises. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications, Inc.

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Exceptional Proof 600

Exceptional Proof 600

masters level forum

Final Thoughts: After all you have learned from the textbook, research you have conducted, and discussions with fellow students; please discuss the main functions of HRM and what you feel is the most important issue facing HR Managers, employees, and Organizations today.

lesson attached

500 word minimum

3 citations

HRMT600 | LESSON EIGHT: REVIEW FOR FINAL EXAM

Introduction

Topics to be covered:

· Overview of highlights and key words from previous lessons

This course has provided an overview of the history of human resource management (HRM) and discussions of key issues in HRM such as the importance of orientation programs, how to handle processes such as job analysis and performance management, and the role of HRM professionals in labor relations with unions. This lesson will help you prepare for your final exam by providing a review of highlights from the previous lessons in this course, including the key terms presented in each lesson.

Lesson 1: Fundamentals of HRM and Strategic Implications

In the 1800s, HRM was not a recognized function or profession, and organizations did not follow any established norms that could be regarded as best practices for HRM. Rather, organizations strove to manage labor in a way that treated workers fairly while encouraging them to be as productive as possible to support the organization in its efforts to maximize profits. Over the years, HRM evolved and developed as a function in organizations that handles staffing, retention, development, adjustment, and change management. Today, organizations must have a well-planned and managed HRM function if they wish to succeed. HRM professionals are a vital part of an organization’s management, helping organizations handle various activities, including the challenges of competing globally.

Key Terms from Lesson 1

ADJUSTMENT

CHANGE MANAGEMENT

DEVELOPMENT

EMPLOYMENT MANAGEMENT

GLOBALIZATION

HRM SYSTEM

HUMAN RELATIONS

HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

HUMAN RESOURCES

INDUSTRIAL DEMOCRACY

INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY

INDUSTRIAL WELFARE WORK

LABOR PROBLEM

LABOR PROCESS

LABOR POWER

LABOR TIME

PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT

RETENTION

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT

STAFFING

TECHNICAL SYSTEM

VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE

Lesson 2: The Legal and Ethical Context of HRM

The practice of HRM is subject to various laws and regulations that HRM managers must follow as they deal with personnel issues, including the recruitment, hiring, and firing of employees. In addition to abiding by legal requirements, HRM managers also have an obligation to practice good ethics as they handle an organization’s personnel issues. This includes respecting employees’ rights and ensuring that disciplinary actions comply with legal requirements, as well as ethical considerations, including justice.

Key Terms from Lesson 2

ADVERSE IMPACT

AFFIRMATIVE ACTION

AGE DISCRIMINATION IN EMPLOYMENT ACT

CONTRACTUAL EMPLOYMENT

DISCRIMINATION

DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE

EMPLOYEE VOICE

EMPLOYMENT-AT-WILL

EQUAL PAY ACT

ETHICAL DILEMMAS

FAIR LABOR STANDARDS ACT (FLSA)

FAMILY AND MEDICAL LEAVE ACT (FMLA)

HARASSMENT

INFORMATIONAL JUSTICE

INTERACTIONAL JUSTICE

JUSTICE

ORGANIZATIONAL CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIORS

PREGNANCY DISCRIMINATION ACT

PROCEDURAL JUSTICE

REVERSE DISCRIMINATION

SEXUAL HARASSMENT

STRUCTURAL JUSTICE

TERMINATION

TITLE I AND TITLE V OF THE AMERICANS WITH DISABILITIES ACT OF 1990 (ADA)

TITLE II OF THE GENETIC INFORMATION NONDISCRIMINATION ACT OF 2008 (GINA)

TITLE VII OF THE CIVIL RIGHTS ACT

UNEQUAL TREATMENT

WORKERS’ COMPENSATION LAWS

Lesson 3: Staffing the Organization

One of the primary responsibilities of HRM is to attract and recruit qualified workers to fill positions within an organization, ensuring the organization is adequately staffed. This begins with conducting a job analysis, job descriptions, and job specifications for each position within an organization. The strategies that HRM professionals use for recruitment and selection may vary depending upon factors such as the type of position to be filled, the organization’s environment, the nature of competition from other organizations, and the physical location of the organization.

Key Terms from Lesson 3

ABILITIES REQUIRED

BEHAVIOR

CREDENTIALS/EXPERIENCE

CRITICAL INCIDENTS

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

ESSENTIAL FUNCTIONS

INFORMATION INPUT

INTERVIEW

JOB ANALYSIS

JOB CONTEXT

JOB DESCRIPTION

JOB PERFORMANCE

JOB SPECIFICATION

KNOWLEDGE REQUIRED

LABOR MARGIN

MENTAL PROCESSES

OBSERVATION

OTHER JOB CHARACTERISTICS

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

RELATIONSHIPS

SKILLS REQUIRED

STAFFING

STRUCTURED QUESTIONNAIRES

TASKS

WORK OUTPUT

Lesson 4: Employee Training and Development

Once an employee is hired, he or she will need orientation followed by other socialization processes, as well as training and development. Training can be a costly investment but it also yields benefits that generally make the costs worthwhile. HRM professionals should know the six Es of training, which are the reasons organizations should provide training to employees: engage, educate, enhance, empower, energize and enlighten.

Key Terms from Lesson 4

CODE OF CONDUCT

CODE OF ETHICS

DEVELOPMENT

GOALS

MENTORSHIP

MISSION

OBJECTIVES

ONBOARDING

ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE

ORIENTATION

PERFORMANCE AND SOCIAL FEEDBACK

RELATIONSHIP BUILDING

SOCIAL CAPITAL

SOCIAL FACILITATION

SOCIAL-ORIENTED INFORMATION SEEKING

SOCIALIZATION

SYNERGY

TASK-ORIENTED INFORMATION SEEKING

TRAINING

VISION

Lesson 5: Performance Management and Appraisal System

To establish standards for behavior and hold employees accountable to those standards, organizations usually have a system of performance management. An important part of this system is a process that evaluates and appraises employee behavior and performance, which can be used to encourage employees to meet organization’s expectations for employee behavior and performance. When involved in a performance management system, HRM professionals must be able to define, facilitate, and encourage performance. They also must use appropriate methods to evaluate employee performance. Some of their options include management by objectives, critical incident diary, behaviorally anchored rating scale, graphic rating scale, ranking, paired comparison, forced distribution, and 360-degree evaluation. Regardless of how they approach the evaluation process, they must ensure it is reliable and valid, and they must make every effort to avoid the common errors made on performance appraisals.

Key Terms from Lesson 5

ABILITIES

ABSOLUTE METHODS

ATTITUDE

ATTRIBUTION

BENCHMARK

CENTRAL TENDENCY ERROR

COMMUNICATION

COMPARATIVE METHODS

CONSISTENCY

CONTRIBUTION

DEVELOPMENT DECISIONS

DISCRETIONARY EFFORT

EFFECTIVENESS

EFFORT

EFFORT BARGAIN

EVALUATIVE DECISIONS

HALO ERROR

INTELLECTUAL ABILITIES

LENIENCY ERROR

LOW-DIFFERENTIATION ERROR

PERCEPTION

PERFORMANCE

PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL

PERFORMANCE DEFINITION

PERFORMANCE ENCOURAGEMENT

PERFORMANCE FACILITATION

PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT

PERSONAL BIAS ERROR

PHYSICAL ABILITIES

PRODUCTIVITY

RACE AND CULTURE

RECENCY ERROR

RELEVANCE

RELIABLE

SELF-AWARENESS ABILITIES

STRICTNESS ERROR

TOTAL PERSON CONCEPT

VALID

VOICE

Lesson 6: Compensation and Benefits

To be successful at work, employees must be motivated and engaged. Compensation and fringe benefits can help motivate employees. Organizations have a variety of options when deciding the types of pay systems they will implement and the fringe benefits they will offer. To make these decisions, they should understand what motivates their employees and provide the types of compensation and fringe benefits that have value to employees. As part of this process, organizations must be aware of whether individual employees are exempt or non-exempt.

Key Terms from Lesson 6

BONUS PLANS

COMMISSION

COMPENSATION

COMPETENCY-BASED PAY SYSTEM

EMPLOYEE SERVICES

ENGAGEMENT

EXTERNAL EQUITY

FRINGE BENEFITS

GAIN-SHARING

HOURLY WAGES OR DAYWORK

HYGIENE FACTORS

INDIVIDUAL EQUITY

INTERNAL EQUITY

MARKET-BASED PAY SYSTEM

MOTIVATION

MOTIVATOR FACTORS

NEEDS-BASED THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

PAY COMPRESSION

PAY-FOR-PERFORMANCE SYSTEM

PAYMENTS FOR TIME NOT WORKED

PIECEWORK

PROCESS-BASED THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

PROFIT-SHARING

SALARY

SECURITY AND HEALTH

STOCK OPTIONS

UNEMPLOYMENT BENEFITS

WORKERS COMPENSATION

Lesson 7: Organized Labor

Many organizations employ individuals who are members of labor unions. When HRM professionals work in such organizations, they must understand labor unions and how this affects labor relations. In addition, they must understand the collective bargaining process and the role they are expected to perform as part of this process. They also must understand legislation affecting labor relations, including right to work laws and how these affect employment processes in states that have such laws.

Key Terms from Lesson 7

AGENCY SHOP

ARBITRATION

BARGAINING ZONE

BOYCOTT

CLOSED-SHOP AGREEMENTS

COLLECTIVE BARGAINING

CRAFT UNIONS

DISTRIBUTIVE BARGAINING

FEATHERBEDDING

FREE RIDERS

GRIEVANCE

INDUSTRIAL UNIONS

INTEGRATIVE BARGAINING

LABOR CONTRACT

MEDIATION

OPEN-SHOP AGREEMENT

PICKETING

PIECEWORK

RIGHT-TO-WORK LAWS

SHIFT DIFFERENTIAL

STRIKE

UNION SECURITY CLAUSE

UNION SHOP

UNIONS

YELLOW-DOG CONTRACT

Conclusion

HRM professionals have a myriad of responsibilities, and they must be knowledgeable in a variety of topics and issues to do their jobs well. This includes being knowledgeable about legal requirements, as well as other issues such as how to motivate employees and how to handle processes such as collective bargaining. HRM is a challenging profession. It also is a critical function that is an absolute necessity if an organization is to be successful.

Course Overview

This course has introduced you to some of the basic, but also most critical, aspects of HRM. By being knowledgeable about these areas, understanding their importance and how to handle them, you can be a successful HRM professional.

References

Banfield, P., & Kay, R. (2008). Introduction to human resource management. New York: Oxford University Press.

Cascio, W. F. (2010). Managing human resources: Productivity, quality of work life, profits, (8th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin.

Nickels, W. G., McHugh, J M., & McHugh, S. M. (2013). Understanding business, (10th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Irwin.

Schermerhorn, J. R. Jr., Hunt, J. G., & Osborn, R. N. . (2005). Organizational behavior, (9th ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

York, K. M. (2010). Applied human resource management: Strategic issues and experiential exercises. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications, Inc.

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Human Resource Management and Talent Development

Human Resource Management and Talent Development

Analyze evidence-based best practices for human resource management used in creating an employee-centered organization as those best practices relate to the organization’s vision, mission, culture, and strategy.

Analyze best practices and expectations for accountability in human resource management and talent development in health care organizations.

Explain how enforcing accountability can help an organization achieve established goals and challenge the status quo.

Propose leadership strategies to achieve organizational human resources goals and challenge the status quo.

Propose interventions to promote collaboration and goal attainment.

Describe how the use of professionalism in one’s skills and abilities as a leader impact effective talent development and employee retention.

Explain how professionalism helps an organization achieve established goals and challenge the status quo.

Submission Requirements

Written communication: Writing is free from errors that detract from the overall message.

APA formatting: Assignment should use APA style and formatting, including a cover page, page numbers, and in-text citations for all references.

Number of resources: Minimum of seven resources, four of which must come from peer-reviewed sources.

Length of paper: 4–10 typed double-spaced pages. This does not include the cover page and references pages.

Font and font size: Times New Roman, 12 point font.

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Explain how professionalism helps an organization achieve established goals and challenge the status quo.

Explain how professionalism helps an organization achieve established goals and challenge the status quo.

Human Resource Management and Talent Development

I WANT THIS TASK DONE BY MAY 2, 2019. NO PLAGIARISM!!!

Analyze evidence-based best practices for human resource management used in creating an employee-centered organization as those best practices relate to the organization’s vision, mission, culture, and strategy.

Analyze best practices and expectations for accountability in human resource management and talent development in health care organizations.

Explain how enforcing accountability can help an organization achieve established goals and challenge the status quo.

Propose leadership strategies to achieve organizational human resources goals and challenge the status quo.

Propose interventions to promote collaboration and goal attainment.

Describe how the use of professionalism in one’s skills and abilities as a leader impact effective talent development and employee retention.

Explain how professionalism helps an organization achieve established goals and challenge the status quo.

Submission Requirements

Written communication: Writing is free from errors that detract from the overall message.

APA formatting: Assignment should use APA style and formatting, including a cover page, page numbers, and in-text citations for all references.

Number of resources: Minimum of seven resources, four of which must come from peer-reviewed sources.

Length of paper: 4–10 typed double-spaced pages. This does not include the cover page and references pages.

Font and font size: Times New Roman, 12 point font.

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Analyze evidence-based best practices for human resource management used in creating an employee-centered organization

Analyze evidence-based best practices for human resource management used in creating an employee-centered organization

Human Resource Management and Talent Development

Analyze evidence-based best practices for human resource management used in creating an employee-centered organization as those best practices relate to the organization’s vision, mission, culture, and strategy.

Analyze best practices and expectations for accountability in human resource management and talent development in health care organizations.

Explain how enforcing accountability can help an organization achieve established goals and challenge the status quo.

Propose leadership strategies to achieve organizational human resources goals and challenge the status quo.

Propose interventions to promote collaboration and goal attainment.

Describe how the use of professionalism in one’s skills and abilities as a leader impact effective talent development and employee retention.

Explain how professionalism helps an organization achieve established goals and challenge the status quo.

Submission Requirements

Written communication: Writing is free from errors that detract from the overall message.

APA formatting: Assignment should use APA style and formatting, including a cover page, page numbers, and in-text citations for all references.

Number of resources: Minimum of seven resources, four of which must come from peer-reviewed sources.

Length of paper: 4–10 typed double-spaced pages. This does not include the cover page and references pages.

Font and font size: Times New Roman, 12 point font.

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Nestle organisation Course Work As A External Innovation Management Consultant

Nestle organisation Course Work As A External Innovation Management ConsultantI have a course work of nestle company and i am as a external innovation management consultant of this company and four learning objects which is mentioned in attached file i need to explore all these things which is mention in four objectives.

Company which I have chosen: NESTLE

Learning outcomes and assessment criteria specific to this assignment:

  1. Evaluate International Operations Management real world scenarios.

Students will have made a critical evaluation of the case organization and discussed in depth the ways in which international operations are undertaken. Some critical assessment of the ways that the multinational organization is managed and the benefits that can be derived from having robust integration of activities and provide recommendations of how performance could be enhanced

  1. Demonstrate critical awareness of the issues, problems and practices that characterise International Operations Management.

Students will have demonstrated a critical awareness of the issues and challenges that are to be found in undertaking international operations and have been able to provide theoretically informed suggestions of how the organization can use operations to provide a best in class performance

  1. Critically evaluate and appraise the role that innovation plays in the development of Operations Management techniques in different national and cultural settings

Students will have been able to critically evaluate the key role of employees in providing sources of innovation that are emerging form within operations that are used to inform the strategy of the firm in a ‘bottom up’ approach and how this can lead to the classification of ‘world class’ status

  1. Critically assess the approaches for developing a culture of creativity and innovation in an organisation

Students will be able to critically assess the ways in which the ‘creative firm’ can be achieved and how the organizational culture lends itself to the nurturing of internal ideas that are utilised to provide sustained competitive advantage. There would be some critical exploration of the benefits that breaking down organizational barriers can bring and how the ‘upside down’ firm can lead to organizational excellence

Assessment outline

Imagine that you have been appointed as an external innovation management consultant to an international or multinational organisation that you currently work in.

Using the published sources such as journal articles, text books, newspaper entries and the internet, your task is to research and report to the CEO / MD with an action plan that takes into account the operational, financial and resource constraints that the organisation faces in using innovation to become more competitive. The plan must be both engaging and implementable.

· 3000 words limit

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The integrative strategic themes of the International Business pathway.

The integrative strategic themes of the International Business pathway.

In additional, regarding to course work of NESTLE

Overview

The aim of this module is to explore the diverse range of activities that comprise the area of International Operations Management, innovation, new product or service development and the need for leadership when introducing change initiatives. Specifically, the module is designed to enable students to appreciate the truly international nature of the modern firm and how many processes are now undertaken across national borders.

· The interaction of contextual forces impacting on an international organisation;

· The integrative strategic themes of the International Business pathway.

The module takes a ‘theory to practice’ approach to illustrate the theoretical positions under discussion in the classroom. This supports the Course philosophy of intellectual and vocationally relevant learning. As such, students will explore the tasks, issues and many real day to day examples and decisions that are necessary to manage processes internationally within organisations and across the supply chain. Specifically, the module is designed to enable students to gain an understanding of the strategic issues associated with managing the operations of international companies in a changing international business environment, to help them develop a critical appreciation of the operational problems of an international company from the viewpoint of the major business functions. In addition the module is designed to provide students with a thorough grounding on how organisations might deal with various aspects of innovation and how the development of a robust strategy for innovation can lead to sustainable competitive advantage. A key thrust of this programme of study is that achieving a sustainable competitive strategy, particularly in the context of disruptive change, is dependent upon organisations and their operations fostering a culture of innovation and creativity. Therefore this module is designed to allow aspiring international managers to improve the overall operations performance by developing an innovation capacity in their current and future careers. It will help managers to develop an understanding of how context influences performance and how organisations must change and learn as their context changes. It will identify the role that innovation and creativity plays in organisational learning and development. The assessment for the module reflects the need for innovation in the modern organization and requires the student to undertake desk research on how an existing international organization could improve the operational performance by introducing innovative processes and practices.

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