Lab Report Format

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Chemistry
Paper, Order, or Assignment Requirements

CHM152LL Lab Report Format
Points: 30 points per lab report
The only lab report that will not be graded based on the following rubric is the Safety Lab (Lab 1).
Use the following as a checklist each time you finish a lab to ensure that you are submitting a complete lab report.
Introduction: (1 point each)
□ Background information – based on the concepts covered in the lab
□ Purpose – usually stated in the online write-up
□ Hypothesis and/or prediction – this one may not be present in all labs
□ Explanation – required if there is a hypothesis/prediction; otherwise, may be included in the background information
Procedure: (2 points each)
□ List of materials – be exact, particularly where important, such as “Fisher electronic analytical balance, +0.01 g,” not “scale,” or “two 12x150mm glass test tubes,” not simply “test tubes”
□ Numbered step-by-step procedure – paraphrase from the lab procedures (do not cut and paste)
Data – (points vary with lab)
□ Tables and/or Figures(graphs)
□ All tables/figures must be clearly labeled. The title should be specific enough to allow any reader to know what the figure/table is showing without reading the lab.
□ Proper labels must be included for the columns and rows or x- and y- axes. Here are two examples “Length/cm + 0.01” or “Temperature/oC + 0.1.” The intervals on the axes should be equivalent.
□ Numbers only go in the body of the table itself; for figures that are graphs, be sure that you use bar or line graphs as appropriate.
If you are instructed to download a data table, then you must make sure that it is titled and labeled properly. Use the graphical analysis program for figures that are graphs, and be sure to follow the above steps.
Discussion- (points vary with lab)
□ Answer the questions. These questions are called “Analysis,” “Calculations,” “Discussion,” or “Processing the Data” (depending on the lab). Make sure to number them according to the way they are numbered in the lab.
Lab 6
Investigating Amphoterism and Buffering Systems END LESSON NUMBER/TITLE *****

 

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Describe and discuss your organization from the perspective of relevant general systems (GST) and socio-technical systems (STS) principles and concerns.

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Capstone Project Case Assignment Part 2
Paper, Order, or Assignment Requirements

For this module you will be continuing your description and assessment of your chosen organization. Please address the following important descriptive and analytic questions, providing enough information to assure clarity:

Describe and discuss your organization from the perspective of relevant general systems (GST) and socio-technical systems (STS) principles and concerns. Elaborate on unique principles and how the organization is using them to foster success, or is oblivious to them and the consequences of this.
Address your own personal ideas about how the organization might use general systems and STS knowledge and application to foster organizational improvement and positively leverage its future. Be specific with your ideas and examples.
Your focus must be principally on IT/ITM-related elements of your topic organization as you review/integrate GST/STS principles and concerns.

In all of this, you will need to reflect on your description and analysis (and perhaps adjust it accordingly) to ensure that you are able to integrate insight and learning from previous classes (and other sources as fits the circumstances). This means you must use at least five contiguous academically sound citations and later full references. Please use enough concurrent discussion so that the purpose of each citation is apparent to the reader. This paper is incomplete without five academically sound references. Relevant magazine articles from such sources as CIO are OK. You may also use Wikipedia and military/corporate references, but they do not count as one of the required five.

Note that a general review of GST/STS without illustration and examples from your topic organization is unacceptable.

You will be assessed on the appropriateness and completeness of the detail you provide regarding your selected organization, your use of citations and references as noted above, and your intellectual insight into topically important issues. You will also be assessed on how well you adhere to the specific Capstone Case Guidelines provided to you.

 

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Analyze Dell’s philosophy as it relates to the role of change in organizational success. Determine how Dell’s philosophy would be perceived in a low performing culture. Identify which performing culture best suits your philosophy regarding change management and provide your rationale.

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Michael Dell began building and selling computers from his dorm room at age 19. He dropped out of the University of Texas when his sales hit $60 million and has never looked back. Dell is said to be the fifteenth richest man in America, and the youngest CEO to make the Fortune 500. Intensely private and notoriously shy, Dell is hailed as a corporate wonder-kid. He climbed to the top by exploiting tax loopholes, outsourcing the competition, and inventing a term called “leveraged recapitalization.”

First, review the following case study:

  • Michael Dell—The man behind Dell: Leading Dell into the future

Then, address the following tasks:

  • Analyze Dell’s philosophy as it relates to the role of change in organizational success.
  • Determine how Dell’s philosophy would be perceived in a low performing culture.
  • Identify which performing culture best suits your philosophy regarding change management and provide your rationale.
  • Consider the way Dell started his company; determine what market conditions made the business possible.
  • Discuss Dell’s approach to building his brand.

Develop a 4–6-slide presentation in PowerPoint format, utilizing at least two scholarly sources (in addition to your textbook) to complete your research, ensuring you cite references within the text and at the end in a reference list. Apply APA standards to the citation of sources. Use the following file naming convention: LastnameFirstInitial_M2_A2.ppt.

Make sure you write in a clear, concise, and organized manner; demonstrate ethical scholarship through accurate representation and attribution of sources; and display accurate spelling, grammar, and punctuation.

By Wednesday, September 17, 2014, deliver your assignment to the M2: Assignment 2 Dropbox.

Dell Computers. (2002). Michael Dell—The man behind Dell: Leading Dell into the future. IBS Center for Management Research. Retrieved from: http://www.icmrindia.org/free%20resources/casestudies/Leadership%20and%

20Entrepreneurship%20freecasestudyp7.htm[icmrindia.org]

Assignment 2 Grading Criteria
Maximum Points
Analyzed Dell’s philosophy. Included multiple accurate points related to the role of change in organizational success. Utilized relevant examples and scholarly resources.
16
Determined how Dell’s philosophy would be perceived in a low performing culture. Utilized relevant examples and scholarly resources.
16
Identified the performing culture that best suits one’s own philosophy regarding change management. Provided a logical rationale and multiple examples using scholarly resources.
16
Determined the type of market conditions that made Dell’s business possible. Utilized logical examples and scholarly resources.
16
Discussed Dell’s approach to building his brand. Utilized multiple logical examples and scholarly resources.
16
Wrote in a clear, concise, and organized manner; demonstrated ethical scholarship through adequate and accurate representation and attribution of sources; and displayed accurate spelling, grammar, and punctuation. Use of scholarly sources aligned with specified assignment requirements.
20
Total:
100
 

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What are “high technologies” and what is meant by “low frequency”?

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Technology
Paper, Order, or Assignment Requirements

Integration of Technology in Early Childhood Education .

The most interesting phrase that I found in the article, “Factors influencing the teachers` adoption and integration of information and communication technology into teaching.” The phrase is that the aim of investment in ICT is to improve the education sector in many countries, though, despite all the massive investment, the ICT implementation in the learning and teaching faces limitations of lack of low frequency. The article focuses on the institutional, personal and technological issues that support the use of the computer technology in the process of learning and teaching. I found it interesting because the demands for high technologies in the modern societies and education system is increasing on a daily basis. The need for teaching ICT has significantly increased in most learning institutions making it a basic requirement that must be incorporated into the curriculum. Despite this, significant barriers to its adoption exist. Their existence has made the adoption of ICT in the education system face the challenge of low-frequency adoption. For example, the learning system in most institutions faces the challenge of inadequate teaching skills among the teachers. This has led to the lack of confidence in them. In addition, the adoption of ICT in the learning institutions faces the challenge of the lack of suitable software in schools. The social challenges limiting the technology use by teachers and others include lack of adequate funds to train teachers and purchasing software and computers. All these changes practically limit the effective use of technology in education systems. Therefore, it is important for every institution to address them in a bid to incorporate ICT effectively in the education systems.

part 1 =write an answer to this question base on the previous writing
What are “high technologies” and what is meant by “low frequency”? These may be known terms to you, but if they are not to the wider class, it will be difficult for others to offer their insights and ideas in discussion of the topic.
—————————————————————————————————–write a comment to this part 2

Re: “Share with your classmates a quotation from or summary of one of your sources that have added to your knowledge or even surprised you.”

While reading the sources for my collaborative writing research paper, there was an article that stood out to me as most surprising. In writing the research paper, the three questions I will be asking are as follows: In what ways does co-authorship effect individual creativity? How do multiple authors maintain continuity? And what are the legalities of co-authorship in regards to marketing and revenue? However, throughout this specific article and the other resources I’ve read, the main concern of the authors seemed to be the importance of contractual agreements and communication.

 

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Evaluate the technologies used in the application presented in this paper and argue whether there are better technologies available today that can improve the quality of this application.

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PERVASIVE SYSTEM
Paper, Order, or Assignment Requirements

Section A: Critical review (25%)

Learning outcomes assessed: LO1 & LO4

Assessment indicators:

Clarity
Conciseness
The following article (copy enclosed) reports on the application of pervasive

computing to healthcare.

Varshney, U. (2007) Pervasive Healthcare and Wireless Health Monitoring. Mobile

Network and Applications. 12(2-3). p. 113-127.

Critically review this article and answer the questions A1 to A3.

A1: Give a summary of the contributions of this article (not more than 500 words).

(7%)

A2: Evaluate the technologies used in the application presented in this paper and argue

whether there are better technologies available today that can improve the quality of

this application.(8%)

A3: Discuss the properties of this application with respect to the five key properties of

pervasive systems. (10%)

Section B: Design your own pervasive system (40%)

Learning outcomes assessed: LO1, LO2 & LO4

Assessment indicators:

Originality
Creativity
Clarity
References
B1: Propose your own pervasive computing system for a specific application. Give a

detailed description of the functionalities of your system. (10%)

B2: Give a detailed critical review of existing related systems and demonstrate the

novelty of your proposed system (900 words). (10%)

B3: Identify and justify the technologies needed for the implementation of the

proposed pervasive computing system . (5%)

B4: Design the architecture of your proposed pervasive system and explain the role of

each component. (10%)

B5: Discuss the properties of your proposed system with respect to the five key

properties of pervasive systems. (5%)

Section C: Modelling and Analysis (35%)

Learning outcomes assessed: LO1 & LO3

Assessment indicators:

Clarity
Conciseness
Correctness
A Simple Infostation-based Communication System

An infostation system is an infrastructural system concept that provides many-time,

many-where wireless data services. This case study is a simple context-aware

infostation-based system which allows users to exchanges text messages using mobile

devices such as laptops, smart phones or tablet computers. Typically, an infostation

system comprises one central infostation centre (ISC) and many wireless access

points, called infostations (ISs), deployed at key positions to maximise coverage. The

ISs are physically connected to the ISC via network cables.

In this example we consider a university that has 3 campuses A, B and C. Each

campus has its own infostation system (with one ISC and many ISs). The ISCs of the 3

campuses are physically connected by cables to a network hub to enable users located

at different campuses to exchange messages, as depicted in Figure 1.

An infostation is aware of any mobile device within its range and is able to interact

with the device, e.g. by exchanging messages. A user within the range of an

infostation can send or receive text messages using a mobile device. For the sake of

simplicity, we assume that a text message contains the following information:

the sender’s username
the recipient’s username
the message content.
Once an infostation receives a text message, it checks if the recipient is within range in

which case it forwards the message to the recipient. If the recipient is not within the

range of that infostation, the infostation forwards the message to the infostation centre

it is connected to.

An infostation centre is aware of all the infostations connected to it and subsequently

of all the devices within the ranges of these infostations. However, an infostation

Figure 1: An infostation-based communication system

centre has direct communications only with the infostations and the network hub

connected to it. When an infostation centre receives a text message from an

infostation, it looks for the infostation where the recipient is located and forwards the

message to this infostation. The infostation where the recipient is located then

forwards the request to the recipient mobile device. If the recipient is not found in one

campus, the message is forwarded via the network hub to the infostation centres of the

other campuses for delivery.

When the network hub receives a message from one ISC, it sends the message to the

other ISCs.

What to Do

You are required to model the Simple Infostation-based Communication System in the

Calculus of Context-aware Ambients (CCA) and to analyse this model using the CCA

simulator ccaPL. We assume there are four ISs and one ISC in each campus, named as

in Figure 1 (IS1a, IS1b, …) and two user mobile devices (Bob’s and Alice’s). Each of

these entities and the network hub can be modelled as an ambient in CCA. We say that

a user’s mobile device is in the range of an infostation IS if the ambient modelling that

mobile device is a child ambient of the ambient representing the infostation IS.

Answer the questions C1 to C7.

Modelling

C1: Give the CCA specification of the ambient modelling the infostation IS1a. (5%)

C2: Give the CCA specification of the ambient modelling the infostation centre ISC1.

(5%)

C3: Give the CCA specification of the ambient modelling the network hub. (5%)

C4: Deduce from C1-C3 the specification of the whole system (without Bob’s and

Alice’s mobile devices). (8%)

Analysis

Assume Bob is willing to send the message hello to Alice. For this communication to

take place, their respective mobile devices can be modelled in CCA as follows:

Bob’s mobile device: bob[ @send(bob, alice, hello).0 ]
Alice’s device: alice[ @recv(s, r, msg).0 ]
Give the simulation results of the system for the following scenarios. These results

must include the listings of the execution output and the interpretation (explanation) of

the execution output.

C5: Scenario 1: Bob and Alice are both in range with the same infostation, IS1b say.

(4%)

C6: Scenario 2: Bob and Alice are both in Campus B, say; Bob in range with the

infostation IS2a and Alice in range with the infostation IS2d. (4%)

C7: Scenario 3: Bob is in range with the infostation IS1a in Campus A while Alice is

in range with the infostation IS3a in Campus C. (4%)

 

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1. The determination that a crime has been committed and that evidence is sufficient to warrant the accused standing trial is known as: double jeopardy indictment. probable cause. nolo contendere

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1. The determination that a crime has been committed and that evidence is sufficient to warrant the accused standing trial is known as:

double jeopardy

indictment.

probable cause.

nolo contendere

2. Article 6 of the Treaty on European Union, called the Maastricht Treaty, states the EU is founded on:

rule of law

specific performance

stare decisis

private markets

3. The crucial issue with the continuity factor of a business’s organizational form is _______.

profit distribution

the method of customer service observed

the method by which the business can be dissolved

management style

4. The classification of crime is based on ________.

Location

the judge’s prerogative

prior record

punishment imposed if convicted

5. Myra offers to sell her home to Hanna for “about $100,000 plus closing costs.”  Hanna accepts Myra’s offer, but later a dispute arises concerning the precise dollar amount of the purchase price. How will a court resolve this dispute?

The court will appoint a licensed real estate appraiser to determine the price to be paid by Hanna.

The court will declare the purchase price and terms too indefinite to create a binding contract.

The court will require Hanna to pay the average of her price and Myra’s price

The court will determine a reasonable price to be paid by Hanna.

6. The ___________ holds that contracts or conspiracies in restraint are illegal only if they constitute undue or unreasonable restraints of trade and that only unreasonable attempts to monopolize are covered by the Sherman Act.

duty to deal doctrine

Parker v. Brown doctrine

rule of reason

rules of per se legality

7. A 911 emergency response service needs operators who are bilingual in English and Spanish. A few applicants of Spanish origin are rejected due to poor English-speaking skills. They file a complaint on the grounds of discrimination based on nationality. Their complaint is squashed. Here, the defense of the federal government is on the grounds of _______.

circumstantial evidence

inculpatory evidence

bona fide occupational qualifications

exclusionary rule

8. Interest-based negotiations are superior to position-based negotiations because:

position-based negotiation is often only concerned with preparing for litigation.

interest-based negotiations allow room for consideration of non-factual concerns, such as relationships and long-term interests.

the difference between the interests of the parties is often large.

interest-based negotiation requires the presence of a judge or magistrate.

9. _____________ jurisprudence supports the idea that law can and should change to meet new developments in society.

Sociological

Historical

Positive law

Natural

10. Hillward Bakers has been using a blue HB logo with a baker’s hat on the HB since their inception ten years ago. Hobart Bakers, a newly opened bakery and confectionary chain, has used the same logo. Hillward has not registered its logo, but it chooses to sue Hobart anyway. Which of the following is true of this case?

Hillward cannot sue Hobart because logos cannot be patented or trademarked.

Hillward can sue Hobart since the logo has been used by Hillward and is associated with it.

Hillward cannot sue Hobart since the logo has not been registered as a trademark.

Hobart can defend that Hillward created something that lacks utility and cannot be trademarked.

11. Ethical formalists maintain that:

harm to an individual is allowable as long as it serves a greater good.

values are situational and change based on circumstance.

harm to individual rights is never justified by an increase in organizational or common good.

the good of the many always supersedes the good of the few.

12. Interpreting Congressional intent, which of the following is never a bona fide occupational qualification (BFOQ)?

Religion

Race

National origin

Sex

13. Which of the following is true of tort law?

Tort law typically deals with breach of contract.

It sets limits on how people can act and use their resources.

It protects people from being tried twice for the same crime.

It provides compensation to those workers who have been injured on the job.

14. In a(n) ___________, the shareholders are taxed only on income distributed.

limited partnership

corporation

sole proprietorship

limited liability company

15. The ideas and philosophies that explain the origin of law and its justification are called:

Jurisprudence

Torts

stare decisis

rule of law

16. Fred takes Betty to dinner at a very expensive and exclusive restaurant. The menu does not mention prices. The server takes their order and both Betty and Fred enjoy the meal immensely. When the bill comes, Fred refuses to pay because the menu had no prices and because he and the server never engaged in language indicating and offer and acceptance. The server said, “Are you ready to order?” and when Fred said “Yes,” the server merely asked “What may I get you tonight?” Which of the following is true?

Fred is correct because no contract was formed.

Fred must pay based on expressed contract theory.

Fred must pay based on an implied-in-fact contract theory.

Fred must pay based on a promissory estoppel theory.

17. Which of the following issues of administrative agencies relates to the substantive outcome of agencies’ rule-making and adjudicating authority?

The reward system usually does not make a significant distinction between excellent, mediocre, and poor performance.

It is very difficult to discharge unsatisfactory employees.

The administrative process is overwhelmed with paperwork and meetings.

Enforcement of some laws varies over time.

18. Civil enforcement powers regarding federal antitrust matters belong to _______.

the Treasury Department

the FTC and the Department of Justice

the Department of Labor

the Department of Revenue and Taxation

19. Finishing the construction of a home two days after the contract called for completion (no injury occurs) most likely will be considered _______.

breach of contract

substantial performance

significant performance

implied performance

20. Which of the following states that parties to a written contract may not introduce oral evidence to change written terms?

The statute of frauds

Concurrent conditions

The parol evidence rule

Conditions subsequent

21. Which of the following is true of the use of alternative dispute resolution (ADR) techniques?

Disputing parties can agree to use an ADR technique after the dispute arises.

ADR techniques are ineffective once the pretrial process has begun.

Disputing parties cannot use an ADR technique not specified in the original agreement.

Disputing parties must begin a lawsuit to use any form of ADR.

22. Which of the following is true under the regulations of interstate commerce?

Intrastate activities affecting interstate commerce can be regulated only by the state governments.

Regulation on any activity is appropriate if it aids interstate commerce.

Activities affecting interstate commerce do not come under the power of the federal government.

The states have the exclusive power to commerce that passes across their lines.

23. Which of the following is true of a violation of trade secrets’ rights?

One must use another’s information without permission.

One must misappropriate another’s information.

Stealing another’s intellectual property violates trade secrets’ rights.

Unauthorized use of another’s information constitutes a violation of trade secrets’ rights.

24. ____________ is a court created rule that limits when courts can review administrative decisions.

The doctrine of exhaustion of remedies

The doctrine of lapse

The doctrine of estoppel

The doctrine of primary jurisdiction

25. Which of the following is true in cases where only one party drafts the contracts that contain terms that appear vague and ambiguous to the other party?

The court will interpret the terms as they mean in the common language.

The court will reject the non-drafting party’s attempt to reinterpret the terms after the contract has been signed.

The court will interpret the ambiguous and vague terms against the party that drafts them.

The court will declare the drafting party’s behavior as a tort due to intentional ambiguity of terms.

26. Frequent, abusive, threatening phone calls by creditors are most likely to provoke the basis for a claim of _____________.

false imprisonment and malicious prosecution

misrepresentation

intentional infliction of emotional distress

malicious representation

27. Which of the following is true of the assumption of risks during delivery of goods?

The seller is liable for any damages incurred to the goods during shipment.

The buyer is responsible for damages to goods when the seller is about to transfer for shipment.

The buyer is liable for any damages incurred to the goods during shipment.

The seller is always responsible for shipping the goods to the buyer.

An employee at-will can be fired for which of the following?

28. An employee at-will can be fired for which of the following?

Making public the fact that the employer was cheating the government on a defense contract.

Making public statements about the hazardous working conditions in a company.

Taking time off from work to serve on jury duty after the boss asked the employee to request a waiver.

Taking time off from work to care for a dependent without informing the employer.

29. Which of the following statements is true of the WARN Act?

It requires employers to give notice of a scheduled mass layoff.

It requires employers to give notice to an “at will” employee that he/she is being fired.

It requires employers to give notice to employees that an unscheduled drug test will be conducted for all employees.

It requires employers to give notice to employees that they are being subjected to polygraph tests.

30. Federal law and business leaders alike favor ____________ as a means of governing private business ethics.

self-regulation by companies

creating uniform statutes of business ethics

giving the federal government exclusive jurisdiction regarding ethics and ethics violation enforcement

establishment of federal regulators in all private companies to establish and enforce ethical standards

 

 

 

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Describe the hardware you will purchase or build (inclusive of computers, memory, storage, video cards, printers, routers and cabling).

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A Complete Home Network
Paper, Order, or Assignment Requirements

A Complete Home Network
Develope an entire home network with a budget of $5,000.00. Your configuration must assume the purchase of associated hardware for access to both wireless and wired connections and a broadband connection. For the purpose of your configuration you must assume the network will be used by four (4) individuals.
Write a two to three (2-3) page paper in which you:
1. Describe the hardware you will purchase or build (inclusive of computers, memory, storage, video cards, printers, routers and cabling). Justify your hardware selection.
2. Develop a spreadsheet or table within the two to three (2-3) page paper that itemizes the costs from the online retailer(s) of your choice.
3. Summarize and support the approach you will use to back up your devices.
4. Suppose you were provided an additional $2,000.00 to enhance your network. Explain the changes you would make to grow your infrastructure. Support your response inclusive of memory, storage, networking and redundancy solutions.
5. Use at least two (2) quality resources in this assignment. Note: Wikipedia and similar Websites do not qualify as quality resources.
Your assignment must follow these formatting requirements:
• Be typed, double spaced, using Times New Roman font (size 12), with one-inch margins on all sides; citations and references must follow APA or school-specific format. Check with your professor for any additional instructions.
• Include a cover page containing the title of the assignment, the student’s name, the professor’s name, the course title, and the date. The cover page and the reference page are not included in the required assignment page length.
The specific course learning outcomes associated with this assignment are:
• Explain how the components of information technology systems interrelate.
• Illustrate the use of information and communication technologies to solve problems as an information technology professional.
• Use technology and information resources to research issues in security management.
• Write clearly and concisely about the theories of security management using proper writing mechanics and technical style conventions.

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“writers have argued that standard costing and variance analysis should not be used for cost control and performance evaluation purposes in today’s manufacturing world”. Explain the arguments concerning the relevance of standard costing and variance analysis.

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Business and law
Paper, Order, or Assignment Requirements

Coursework Question
“The standard product cost systems typical of most organisations usually lead to
enormous cross-subsidies across products. When such distorted information
represents the only information on ‘product costs,’ the danger exists for misguided
decisions on product pricing, product sourcing, product mix, and responses to rival
products. Many firms seem to be falling victim to the danger”
Johnson H.T. and Kaplan R.S. (1991) Relevance Lost: The Rise and Fall of
Management Accounting
In recent years, writers have argued that standard costing and variance analysis should
not be used for cost control and performance evaluation purposes in today’s
manufacturing world. Its use, they argue, is likely to induce behaviour that is
inconsistent with the strategic manufacturing objectives that companies need to
achieve in order to survive in today’s intensely competitive international economic
environment
(a) With reference to appropriate academic sources, explain the arguments referred to in the
above paragraphs concerning the relevance of standard costing and variance analysis.
(b) With reference to appropriate academic sources, explain the arguments in favour of the
relevance of standard costing and variance analysis in the modern manufacturing
environment.
(c) Drawing upon your answers to a) and b) above and appropriate academic sources discuss
the extent to which Johnson and Kaplan’s statement remains true a quarter of a century
later

 

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1. Identify the weaknesses in each strategy. (Hint: How do you think the bond rating agencies reacted to California’s 2003 budget?) 2. Which strategies are the most dangerous? Least? Why?  3. Provide a recent example of each strategy.

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Each question should be answered in an essay format of approximately 250-500 words. Ensure your paper answers the questions and uses concepts studied in the module and from the reading. Support your answers with personal experiences, current events, and references to the reading

In three-fourths of the states, the treasurer or chief financial officer (CFO) is elected by citizens in statewide elections. In some states, such as New York and Texas, the comptroller is elected and performs many of the functions of the CFO. About two-thirds of local governments have an official with the title “financial officer,” “financial director,” or a similar title implying broad duties. Financial wizardry is not a CFO’s primary calling; but when governors or mayors find their budgets unbalanced, they turn to the CFO for possible stratagems. For the past few years, politicians in far too many cities and states—not to speak of Washington, DC have tended to rely on nine dangerous stratagems:

1. Delay maintenance and replacement of assets and rely on hope. On August 1, 2007, the I-35W Bridge across the Mississippi River in Minneapolis collapsed suddenly, killing 13 people. Seven months later, a federal com-mission said that just to maintain and upgrade surface transportation in the United States world cost $225 billion a year for the next 50 years. Ensuring safe and dependable roads, bridges and transportation systems, as well as water systems, sewage treatment plants, dams and even schools also requires long-term planning. Unfortunately, most politicians prefer quick fixes.

2. Sell assets. In economic hard times, it is popular to sell land, buildings, or surplus assets. California’s real estate is one of its greatest assets and selling off state property, according to the governor’s office, would raise over $1 billion. Specifically, Governor Schwarzenegger proposed the sale of seven state-owned properties to help get his budget in balance including: San Quentin State Prison, the Cow Palace, Del March Fairgrounds, Orange County Fairgrounds, Ventura County Fairgrounds, and the Los Angeles Coliseum. Schwarzenegger’s proposal was rather straightforward compared to that of Governor Eliot Spitzer in New York, who wanted to securitize, or sell off, part of future state lottery proceeds.

3. Lease rather than buy equipment. Say the U.S. Air Force needs 100 Boeing 767 aircraft’s to use as aerial refueling tankers. Buying them outright would cost about $20 billion and add appreciably to this year’s deficit. Therefore, for political reasons, Congress and the president might prefer to lease them over a 12-year period. The budget would take far less of a hit each year, even though total cost would be higher than if the Air Force had bought the planes.

4. Rob Peter to pay Paul. Most budgets are made up of multiple accounts. The account that gets the most attention is called the general fund. When that general fund gets in trouble, politicians start considering off budget funds as resources to be tapped. New York helped balance its budget in 1992 by transferring the cost of running the Erie Canal from the general fund (“on budget”) to the Thruway Authority (“off budget”). Similarly, in 2003, Massachusetts transferred management of a convention center and a parking garage (both “on budget”) to the state pension fund (“off budget”) to show a savings of $175 million.

5. Nickel and dime employees. The response to budget problems is often symbolic. David Osborne and Peter Hutchinson write: “Leaders order coffee pots unplugged, travel budgets slashed, and consultants banned. To save energy, they force workers to endure hotter offices in summer and colder offices in winter. Some even outlaw potted plants. In Missouri last year, the governor ordered that every other light bulb in government buildings be unscrewed.

”6. Make across-the-board cuts rather than targeted cuts. In 2008, Governor Schwarzenegger proposed cutting California’s budget across the board by 10 percent, meaning that every state agency from police to health to the arts would receive a 10 percent reduction in its annual budget. Less drastically, that same year, Iowa Governor Chet Culver announced a 1.5 percent across-the-board cut and said education and Medicare “won’t escape unscathed.” The popularity of broad-brush, across-the-board cost-cutting is easy to under-stand: It is a way to avoid making difficult, uncomfortable political choices.

7. Fudge the numbers. A budget is really just a forecast, a necessary statement of expected revenues and expenses. But every budget is based on assumptions, and CFOs can make it look better or worse simply by changing those assumptions. If they expect 1000 new students to enroll in their schools but assume (for budget purposes) only 900, they have reduced the basis for their estimate of new expenses by 10 percent. Ronald Reagan’s approach in 1982 was a classic example of making the budget “work” by fudging the numbers. To justify large tax cuts, his budget director, David Stockman, forecast 5 percent growth for 1982. Theoretically, this would help create a $28 billion surplus by 1986. As it turned out, the gross national product fell by 2 percent that year—and the largest deficits since World War II soon followed. The Obama White House presented its own rosy scenario with the fiscal year 2010 budget. It expected economic growth in 2009 to decline by only 1.2 percent, whereas the non-partisan Congressional Budget Office assumed a 3 percent decline. Quite a difference.

8. Borrow. Even when the general fund is legally prohibited from being in debt, governments find ways to borrow. The chief way states and local governments borrow is by issuing bonds. California has proven that the politics of borrowing works for both Republicans and Democrats. In 2003, the legislature finally passed a $99 billion budget with $10.7 billion of borrowing—which was probably unconstitutional. After voter removed (recall) Democratic Governor Gray Davis from office, the new Republican governor, Schwarzenegger, immediately endorsed borrowing $15 billion more as part of his “budget balancing” plan. Meanwhile, on the East Coast, New Jersey faced a $3.5 billion shortfall and had accumulated a $32 billion debt. Governor John Corzine therefore proposed increasing fees on toll roads and issuing up to $38 billion in bonds against future toll revenues. Although issuing bonds is the chief way for a state to borrow, Schwarzenegger would later try another way, namely, invoking a law that lets the state demand loans of 8 percent of property tax revenue from cities, counties, and special districts. Under this law, the state must repay the municipalities with interest within three years. So, he requested $2 billion, displeasing local officials up and down the state and in effect, kicking the can down the road three years.

9. Use accounting gimmicks. Accounting offers many temptations to politicians who might have made a read-my-lips pledge of “no new taxes.” Since we cannot consider all the gimmicks, we note here just four: manipulating the timing of expenditures and receipts, requesting funds after budget approval, making false assumptions, and making dubious promises.

Our first example involves pretending or even requiring that money you expect to receive next year will actually come in this year or pretending that expenses planned for this year will be made, technically, next year. For example, states tell school districts that are expecting a school-aid payment in May (this fiscal year) that they will get it in July (next fiscal year), thus making this year’s expenses look smaller. At the same time, they tell retailers who normally submit their June sales tax receipts in July (next fiscal year) to do so in June, thus making this year’s revenue look larger. In Massachusetts, Governor Deval Patrick proposed counting about $900 million in proceeds from license fees of new casinos that the legislature had not even authorized.

Prudent presidents and governors recognize that natural disasters happen and allow for them in their budgets. Others simply assume none will occur, lower their spending request to the legislature accordingly, and then blithely ask the legislature for supplemental funding two months later, when the flooding or whatever occurs. This works well for wars, too.

Another accounting gimmick used to make deficit projection look smaller involves the alternative minimum tax (AMT) enacted in 1969 to prevent the wealthy from using tax shelters to avoid paying any income tax. Although it was intended to hit the wealthy taxpayer, it was not indexed for inflation. That fact has meant that it could affect millions of middle-class taxpayers. If they pay it, the government would get billions of dollars more in tax revenues, which is what past budgets have falsely assumed. But it would also probably mean a taxpayer revolt. So each year the White House and Congress agree to patch the alternative tax for inflation and the extra revenues never materialize.

Finally, we come to a relatively new gimmick: PAYGO (pay-as-you-go) . Here’s how it works: The president promises that “Congress can only spend a dollar if it saves a dollar elsewhere.” Thus, PAYGO, provides politicians with convenient talking points and taxpayers with a false sense of security on budget reform. From 1991 through 2002, PAYGO existed as a statute and was brought back in 2007. But it never worked because Congress severely limited the amount of the budget to which it applied and, in those cases when it did apply, conveniently voted waivers.

Case Questions

1. Identify the weaknesses in each strategy. (Hint: How do you think the bond rating agencies reacted to California’s 2003 budget?)

2. Which strategies are the most dangerous? Least? Why?

3. Provide a recent example of each strategy.

 

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